Cognitive Psychology Chapter 3.5 Perception & Pattern Recognition Chapter 4.1 Attention

1. Cognitive Psychology Chapter 3.5 Perception & Pattern Recognition Chapter 4.1 Attention

2. 1/7/2020 Outline • Attention • Categorizing Attention • Visual attention • The spotlight metaphor • Selection models • Early vs. late selection • Attention as a resource • Driven to distraction • Hemineglect • Consciousness Study Question. • Describe four different meanings of Attention. • Compare and contrast endogenous and exogenous orienting. • What is the red dot test and how is it used to test for self-awareness.

3. Attention • Attention, everyone knows what it is • Magicians know how to use it • The amazing colour changing card trick http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3dL-bMorTFI

4. Attention • Ashcroft’s six meanings of attention • Input Attention • Alertness and arousal • Orienting reflex • The spotlight metaphor and search • Controlled Attention • Selective attention • Mental resources and conscious processing • Supervisory attentional system

5. Attention • Updated to four meanings of attention • Alertness and arousal • Orienting and searching • Filtering and selecting • Mental resources and conscious processing • Attention as a process • Attention is an activity within the cognitive system • Attention as a resource • Attention is a mental commodity that fuels the cognitive system

6. Attention High Medium Task Easy Task Difficult Task Performance Low High Low Arousal • Alertness and Arousal • Tonic arousal and the Yerkes-Dodson law

7. Attention 600 500 RT (ms) 400 300 First Letter Second Letter Warning -4 -2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 Time (sec) • Alertness and Arousal • Phasic arousal: Alertness • Posner & Boies’ (1971) dual task experiment

8. Attention WHERE WHAT • Orienting • The orienting reflex or response • The what and where pathways

9. Attention • Orienting • The spotlight model “Attention is a like a spotlight that enhances the efficiency of detection of events within its beam”. Posner et al. (1980)

10. Attention • Orienting • The spotlight model • Spatial structure • Spatially restricted • Eriksen’s zoom lens metaphor • Unitary (McCormick & Klein, 1990; McCormick et al. 1998) • Orienting mechanisms • Selection for spatial locations can be allocated willingly or automatically • Endogenous and exogenous orienting • Endogenous orienting: Effortful, controlled, resource driven. • e.g., an arrow cue • Exogenous orienting: Effortless, automatic, data driven • e.g., a bright flash

11. Attention Valid (80%) Invalid (20 %) Neutral + + + <-- --> <-> --> <-- <-> X X X • Orienting • The spotlight model • Posner’s cuing procedure: Endogenous orienting

12. Attention Valid (50%) Invalid (50 %) Neutral + + + + | | + | | + X X X + + + • Orienting • The spotlight model • Posner’s cuing procedure: Exogenous orienting

13. Attention 450 400 RT (ms) 350 300 Invalid Valid Neutral Condition • Orienting • The spotlight model • Posner’s cuing procedure

14. Attention • Orienting • The spotlight model • The spotlight and visual search • Johnson et al.’s (1995) suggestion • Pop-out -> Input attention • Conjunction search -> Controlled attention • Relation to endogenous and exogenous attention

15. Attention Work Dieting Romantic movies Literature Opera Ballet Doughnuts TV Pork rinds Football Cheap meat Beer • Filtering and selecting • Selective versus divided attention • Dual message vs. dual task • Shadowing experiments Doughnuts ,TV, Pork rinds, Football, Cheap meat, Beer ...

16. Attention S E L E C T I O N Short- term Memory F I L T E R R Pattern Recognition Sensory Memory S Long- term Memory • Filtering and selecting • The bottleneck metaphor • Cherry (1953): What do we perceive in the ignored ear? • Physical characteristics, but not meaning • What happens to the unattended message?

17. Attention 6 8 3 1 7 4 • Filtering and selecting • Broadbent’s all-or-nothing filter

18. Attention Tree Rock Homer Barn Street Table Horse Chair Desk Paper House Table, horse, chair, Homer, doohh!. • Filtering and selecting • Problems with the all-or-nothing filter • Moray’s Experiment

19. Attention Hand me that big jumping in the street I saw the girl song was wishing • Filtering and selecting • Treisman’s Experiment I saw the girl jumping in ... Dooohhh! was wishing

20. Attention • Filtering and selecting • Treisman’s Attenuation Model

21. Attention • Filtering and selecting • Late Selection Theory • The Deustch - Norman model • All inputs are recognized • Inputs are forgotten easily unless attended • The bottleneck occurs in STM • Two determinants of selection • Strength of input • importance (i.e., pertinence) • Item with the highest combination of both gets activated

22. Attention • Filtering and selecting • The Deustch - Norman model

23. Attention Daniel Kahneman • Attention as a mental resource • Kahneman’s model

24. No list 1 list 2 lists 2 lists (pitch) (semantic) Detection time Shadowing errors Attention • Attention as a mental resource • Resolving the locus of the bottleneck • Johnston & Heinz’s (1978) multimode theory • Measured shadowing resources using a dual task procedure. • Shadowing based on pitch (early) or semantic category (late) • Hit a button when a dot appeared on a screen (detection). • Results 310 ms n/a 370 ms 1.4% 433 ms 5.3% 482 ms 20.5%

25. (Exogenous Orienting?)

26. Attention • Automaticity • Posner & Snyder’s characterization Automatic Controlled (Conscious) • Without intention - With intention • Awareness is not necessary - Awareness is necessary • Requires few resources - Resource demanding

27. Attention • Awareness and Automaticity • Approaches to dissociations • Simple dissociations • H.M. and procedural memory • E.g., Sidis’ Dissertation • Double dissociations • Complete separability of two processes • • Clinical dissociations • • The processes in opposition approach

28. Attention • Acquiring Automaticity • Mowbray’s Study • Spelke et al.’s study • The disadvantages of Automaticity • It can be hard to undo • C.f. Spontaneous recovery. • There are times when we ought to be attending, but do not. • Barshi and Healy’s study (Automatic proof-reading)

29. Attention • Acquiring Automaticity • The disadvantages of Automaticity • Inattentional blindness • The original study Demo http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nkn3wRyb9Bk

30. Attention • The cell phone diversion • Strayer’s Research • Used a driving simulator • Single vs. dual task • Hands free vs. hand held • No difference • Can drivers recognize objects that they have fixated on? • Recognition accuracy for fixated objects about half when conversing • Even when fixation duration is equated performance was far worse • The inattentional blindness hypothesis • Cell-phone conversation disrupts performance by diverting attention from the external environment associated with the driving task to the cellphone converstation.

31. Attention • The cell phone diversion • Strayer’s Research • What about strategic reallocation? • There are important and unimportant objects • Two-Alternative forced choice recognition • Drivers rated the importance of the items. • Performance was significantly poorer in the dual task. • even when fixation duration is controlled. • Absolutely no effect of the importance of the object on the inattentional blindness effect.

32. Attention • The cell phone diversion • Strayer’s Research • ERP study • The P300: Related to attentional allocation. • • Larger P300 leads to better memory. • • Decreases in P300 is associated with complex tasks that draw resources. • Car tailing paradigm. • EEG starts measuring when car ahead breaks (randomly)

33. Attention • The cell phone diversion • Strayer’s Research • ERP study • 50% reduction in the amplitude of the P300 • • Slower reactions and fewer processing resources.

34. Attention • The cell phone diversion • Strayer’s Research • Conversing on the phone vs. with a passenger • Instructed to drive 8 miles down a freeway and exit at a truck stop. • Only 12% of drivers with a passenger missed the exit. • About 50% talking on a cell phone missed the exit • • The passengers assisted the drivers

35. Attention • The cell phone diversion • Strayer’s Research • Conversing and driving vs. drinking and driving • Car-tailing paradigm • Compared .08% alcohol intoxication with hands held and hands free. • No differences were observed between the cell phone conditions

36. Attention • The cell phone diversion • Strayer’s Research • Conversing and driving vs. drinking and driving • Summary of results

37. Attention • Hemineglect (hemi-inattention) • “A disruption in the ability to look at something in the (often) left visual field of attention and pay attention to it.” • From Phantoms… : The Lost World See previous links to Phantoms in the Brain

38. Consciousness • Anasognosia (denial of illness) • From “Phantoms”… The Sound of One Hand Clapping See previous links to Phantoms in the Brain

39. Consciousness • Some definitions • Sentience: Refers to the subjectivity of consciousness • Qualia: The properties of our subjective, phenomenology awareness • Unconscious: Processes that are outside of consciousness. • Self -knowledge: First person awareness

40. Consciousness • Cartesian dualism • The theater of of the mind • Materialism • The brain enables the mind • But can it be studied? • Thomas Nagel: What is it like to be a bat? • Subjective nature of consciousness

41. Consciousness • Can consciousness be studied empirically? • Four Answers • No - it is metaphysical • Dualism • The colour-blind neurophysiologist • Thomas Nagel • No - it is beyond our cognitive ability • Not a full self-observing system • New Mysterians • Cognitive Closure - We do not have the intellectual ability to solve extremely complicated problems.

42. Consciousness • Can consciousness be studied empirically? • Four Answers • Yes - but we do not have the technology yet • Yes - and we are very close to an acceptable answer • Neuro-philosophy • The ‘hard’ problem (From Wikipedia) • Why should physical processing give rise to a rich inner life at all? • How is it that some organisms are subjects of experience? • Why does awareness of sensory information exist at all? • Why do qualia exist? • Why is there a subjective component to experience? • Why aren't we philosophical zombies? • Phenomenal Natures are categorically different from behavior

43. Consciousness Famous Name Nonfamous Name New New Old Condition Full Attention .54 .18 .13 Divided Attention .49 .14 .28 • Awareness • Helmholtz’s Unconscious Inference • Unconscious influences vs. cognitive control • Cognitive product vs. cognitive process distinction • Memory as an object vs. memory as a tool • Jacoby’s false recognition experiment • Full versus divided attention • Nonfamous names learned (Sabastian Weisdorf) • Probability of Judging a name famous

44. Consciousness • Awareness • Typology of implicit processing • Classical conditioning • Priming • Spreading activation • Motor skills • Procedural memory • Non-associative learning • Implicit learning of grammar • The objective - subjective threshold distinction • Blindsight

45. Consciousness • Self awareness • Self-recognition in humans • The Paint test • 16 - 18 months • Recognition in pictures • 2 yrs • In other species • Chimps other great apes • Some sea mammals • Elephants • Magpies

46. Consciousness • Intentionality • Pain is in brain. • Phantom limb sensation • Free will • An illusion? Libet’s research • Stimulate skin on right hand, stimulate right cortex (left hand area) • Judge when the two are occurring simultaneously • Counterintuitive finding • The cortex needs to be stimulated 1/2 s earlier • Same differential when the thalamus is stimulated instead of skin

47. Consciousness • Intentionality • Free will • An illusion? Libet’s research • Used EEG to measure activity in motor cortex • Observers indicated when they had decided to make a movement • You start making a movement 1/2 s before you decide to make it! • Soon (2008) • Used MRI to find activity that could predict future decisions • Conscious experience as ad hoc revisionism • Stalinistic vs. Orwellian revisionism • The executive veto • Free “won’t”?