Wireless Personal Communications Systems – CSE5807

1. Wireless Personal Communications Systems – CSE5807 Lecture: 04 Stephen Giles and Satha K. Sathananthan School of Computer Science and Software Engineering Monash University Australia These slides contain figures from Stallings, and are based on a set developed by Tom Fronckowiak .

2. Wireless Networks • Limited bandwidth. • Noisy channel and Multipath propagation. >> Interference. • Limited coverage => Roaming • Security. •  Power consumption.

3. GSM, CDMA Wireless Networks 2G 3G WAN Vehicle Walk Fixed Walk Fixed LAN Indoor Outdoor Wideband Cellular WLAN WPAN Mbps 0.1 1 10 100 WPAN – Wireless Personal Area Network

4. Cellular Systems • First Generation Systems: Analog • Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS): US, Australia, Southeast Asia. • Total Access Communication System (TACS): EU • Nippon Telephone and Telegraph (NTT): Japan • Second Generation Systems: Digital • Global System of Mobile communications (GSM): Europe, Asia • Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) systems (IS-95): US, Asia • Third Generation Systems: Digital & Packet switching • Wideband CDMA • CDMA2000

5. Wireless Channel • Compared to wire/fiber, mobile radio channels have major problems with noise and interference. • - Environmental effects. • - Large amounts of noise. • - Leakage from adjacent channels and distant transmitters on the same channel. • Multi-path fading (Rayleigh) and Doppler effect. • Signal coverage: • Essential for deployment of wireless networks. • Influenced by the radio frequency of operation, transmitted power and the terrain.

6. Scattering Rx Tx Diffraction Reflection Wireless Channel

7. Cellular Concepts • The concept of cellular radio emerged in the late 1940s as a potential technique for getting around the limitations on available frequencies. • A large number of low-power transmitters, one per "cell“. • A range of frequencies allocated to each cell. • Frequency allocation such that co-channel interference is limited. • “Hand-over“ (handoff) techniques for mobile units moving from cell to cell.

8. Base station (BS) coverage coverage coverage Backbone Network Cellular Concepts • To transmit signals on a particular frequency band with “limited power” so that the same frequency band can be reused in other location.

9. Cellular Concepts • Areas divided into cells: • Each served by its own antenna => multiple low-power transmitters. • Served by base station consisting of transmitter, receiver, and control unit. • Band of frequencies allocated. • Adjacent cells assigned different frequencies to avoid interference or crosstalk. =>> Frequency reuse.

10. 4-cell frequency reuse (N=4) 7-cell frequency reuse (N=7) Cellular Concepts: Frequency Reuse

11. D d R Cellular Concepts: Frequency Reuse • N = Frequency reuse factor • R = Radius of a cell • d = Distance between centers of adjacent cells • D = Minimum distance between centers of cells that use the same band of frequencies (cochannel) • K = Total number of channels (frequency bands) allocated to the systems.

12. Cellular Concepts: Frequency Reuse • In a hexagonal cell pattern: • If each cell is assigned equal number of channels, then the number of channels per cell: • Maximum number of simultaneous users in the system:

13. Cellular Concepts: Interference and Capacity • Interference affects reuse plan. • Major interference: • - Cochannel (or same frequency interference): => most important. • - Adjacent Channel: => less important. • A smaller number of frequency reuse plan has: •  Wider available bandwidth in each cell. •  Higher interference.

14. Cellular Concepts: Cochannel Interference 4-cell frequency reuse (stronger) 7-cell frequency reuse (weaker)

15. Cellular Concepts: Adjacent Channel Interference Frequency band of the mobile phone wanted power … Interference Adjacent channel interference

16. Cellular Concepts: Cells • Different sizes and types of cells are used in a cellular network. The choices of a cell depend on the bandwidth usage in a region. • Macrocells: • Used to serve low density traffic area. • Tens of kilometers, served by base stations. • Microcells: • Used to serve high density traffic area. • Hundred of meters to a kilometer, supported by a rooftop level base station antenna. • Sectored cells: • Used to reduce cochannel interference. • Umbrella cells: • Used to reduce the need for handover in microcells.

17. Cellular Concepts: Cells Large cells are used to serve low traffic areas. Microcells are used for high traffic demand regions. Umbrella cells are used in areas where users are moving fast from one cell to another (eg. freeways)

18. Cellular Concepts: Sectored Cells • Some commonly used sectored cells: Rhombic Hexagonal Triangular • The output power of an antenna in a sectored cell: coverage antenna -3dB

19. interference Cellular Concepts: Interference in Sectored Cells • Each sector is operated at a different frequency band. • The number of main interference is reduced from 6 to 2 7-cell frequency reuse

20. Two receivers  Base station tower Spatial Diversity • Multipath in wireless transmissions results in “Rayleigh Fading” (or fast fading). • Multiple antennas are used to receive signals from a mobile phone to reduce Fading effects.

21. Cellular Concepts: Increasing Capacity • Adding new channels. • Frequency borrowing: • Frequencies are taken from adjacent cells by congested cells. • Cell splitting: • Cells in areas of high usage can be split into smaller cells. • Cell sectoring: • Cells are divided into a number of wedge-shaped sectors, each with their own set of channels. • Multiple Antennas:

22. Operation of Cellular System

23. Operation of Cellular System • Mobile equipment (ME): • Physical terminal, includes radio transceiver, digital signal processors and subscriber identity module (SIM). • Base Station (BS): • Includes antenna, controller, and a number of receivers. • Use multiple low-power transmitters. • Areas divided into cells, and each served by its own antenna. • Band of frequencies allocated. • Mobile telecommunications switching office (MTSO): • Connects calls between mobile units. • Two types of channels available between mobile unit and BS. • Control channels: used to exchange information for setting up and maintaining calls. • Traffic channels: carry voice or data connection between users.

24. Operation of Cellular System • Mobile unit initialization: • Scanning => Select the strongest setup channel. • Handshake => Identify and register location. • Mobile-originated call: • Request for connection on the pre-selected setup channel. • Paging: • MTSO sends message to certain BSs to identify the called number. • Call accepted: • Mobile recognizes the call respond to BS -> MTSO. • MTSO assigns traffic channels. • Ongoing call: • Monitoring stage. • Handoff:

25. Operation of Cellular System • Call blocking: • No free traffic channels. • Call termination: • MTSO is informed. • Call drop: • Resulting from weak signal. • Calls to/from fixed and remote mobile subscriber: • MTSO sets up the connection.

26. Base station Base station cell boundary f1 f2  BSC Handover or Handoff • Handover occurs when a mobile phone moves from a cell to another. • Power levels are constantly measured by base stations and/or mobile phones to decide whether a handover is needed.

27. Handover or Handoff • Mainly two types: • Network initiated. • Mobile assisted. • Performance metrics for handoff decision. • Cell blocking probability: probability of a new call being blocked • Call dropping probability: probability that a call is terminated due to a handoff. • Call completion probability: probability that an admitted call is not dropped before it terminates. • Handoff strategies: • Relative signal strength. • Relative signal strength with threshold. • Prediction techniques.

28. Power Control • Dynamic power control in a cellular system. • Received power must be sufficiently above the background noise for effective communication • Desirable to minimize power in the transmitted signal from the mobile • Reduce cochannel interference • Alleviate health concerns • Save battery power • In SS systems using CDMA, it’s desirable to equalize the received power level from all mobile units at the BS.

29. Power Control • Open-loop power control • Depends solely on mobile unit. • No feedback from BS. • Not as accurate as closed-loop, but can react quicker to fluctuations in signal strength. • Closed-loop power control • Adjusts signal strength in reverse channel based on: • Received signal power level. • Received signal to noise ratio. • Received bit error rate. • BS makes power adjustment decision and communicates to mobile on control channel. • Also used to adjust power in forward channel. • Mobile provides power adjustment information to BS.

30. Traffic Engineering • Ideally, available channels would equal number of subscribers active at one time • In practice, not feasible to have capacity handle all possible users. • For N simultaneous user capacity and L subscribers • L < N => non-blocking system • L > N => blocking system • Blocking system: • Blocking probability (B): • Probability that call request is blocked. • What capacity is needed to achieve a certain upper bound on probability of blocking, B?

31. Traffic Engineering • Traffic intensity (A): • Load presented to a system: •  = mean rate of calls attempted per unit time. • h = mean holding time per successful call. • A = average number of calls arriving during average holding period. • Manner in which blocked calls are handled • Lost calls delayed (LCD) – blocked calls put in a queue awaiting a free channel. • Blocked calls rejected and dropped.

32. Traffic Engineering • Performance is measured by the blocking probability. • Blockage rate depends on the number of circuits available, the number of initiated calls, and the length of the conversation. • Erlang B formula: • - Calls are lost if a channel (circuit) is not available.

33. Analog Cellular Networks (1 G) • An analog cellular network is operated at 900 MHz. • FDMA is used to allow multiple mobile phones to share a single base station in a cell. • Voice signals are transmitted with no coding scheme. • The major analogue cellular systems are based on the original AMPS design: - System bandwidth: 25MHz • 25 or 30 kHz channels • AMPS (USA, EIA-553) 800MHz • TACS (UK) 900MHz • NMT (Nordic countries) 450 and 900 MHz

34. AMPS Parameters • Downlink: 869 to 894 MHz • Uplink: 824 to 849 MHz • Channel bandwidth: 30 kHz • Spacing between forward and reverse channel: 45 MHz • Number of full-duplex voice channels: 790 • Number of full-duplex control channels: 42 • Mobile unit maximum power: 3 watts • Cell radius: 2 to 20 km • Data transmission rate: 10 kbps • Modulation schemes: FM and FSK

35. AMPS Operation • Subscriber initiates call by keying in phone number and presses send key. • MTSO verifies number and authorizes user. • MTSO issues message to user’s cell phone indicating send and receive traffic channels. • MTSO sends ringing signal to called party. • Party answers: • MTSO establishes circuit and initiates billing information. • Either party hangs up: • MTSO releases circuit, frees channels, completes billing

36. 1G 2G System Analog Digital Multiple Access FDMA TDMA, CDMA Scheme: FDMA Voice quality: Low Good Bandwidth efficiency: Low High Power consumption High Low on mobile phones: Security: Low High Value added service: Difficult Easy System complexity: Low High 1 G and 2 G Comparison

37. freq f3 f2 f1 cell A A B 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 … time GSM • Use of several carrier frequencies. • Cell sizes vary : 100 m up to 35 km (user density, geography, transceiver power etc). • Multiple Access = FDMA/TDMA • FDMA  200kHz • TDMA  8 slots in a frame • ie. each channel = 200kHz/8 = 25kHz (Bandwidth)

38. GSM Parameters • Downlink: 935 to 960 MHz • Uplink: 890 to 915 MHz • Channel bandwidth: 200 kHz • Users per channel: 8 • Spacing between forward and reverse channel: 45 MHz • Number of duplex channels: 125 • Mobile unit maximum power: 20 watts • Speech coding bit rate: 13 kbps • Modulation schemes: GMSK

39. GSM Speech Signal Processing

40. GSM Network Architecture

41. GSM: Mobile Station • Mobile station communicates across Um interface (air interface) with base station transceiver in same cell as mobile unit. • Mobile equipment (ME) – physical terminal, such as a telephone or PCS. • ME includes radio transceiver, digital signal processors and subscriber identity module (SIM). • GSM subscriber units are generic until SIM is inserted.

42. GSM: Base Station Subsystem (BSS) • BSS consists of base station controller and one or more base transceiver stations (BTS). • Each BTS defines a single cell. • Includes radio antenna, radio transceiver and a link to a base station controller (BSC). • BSC reserves radio frequencies, manages handoff of mobile unit from one cell to another within BSS, and controls paging.

43. GSM: Network Subsystem (NS) • NS provides link between cellular network and public switched telecommunications networks: • Controls handoffs between cells in different BSSs. • Authenticates users and validates accounts. • Enables worldwide roaming of mobile users. • Central element of NS is the mobile switching center (MSC).

44. GSM: Mobile Switching Center (MSC) Databases • Home location register (HLR) database: • Stores information about each subscriber that belongs to it. • Visitor location register (VLR) database: • Maintains information about subscribers currently physically in the region. • Authentication center database (AuC): • Used for authentication activities, holds encryption keys. • Equipment identity register database (EIR): • Keeps track of the type of equipment that exists at the mobile station

45. fixed network HLR GMSC NSS with OSS VLR MSC VLR MSC BSC BSC MS RSS MS BTS GSM Network Architecture

46. radio cell BSS MS MS radio cell Um RSS MS BTS BTS Abis BSC BSC A MSC MSC NSS signaling VLR VLR ISDN, PSTN HLR GMSC PDN IWF O OSS EIR AUC OMC GSM Network Architecture

47. GSM: Channels • Physical: TCH (Traffic Channel) • Logical channels, they are used for controls and signaling. Some examples: • Synchronization channel (SCH): - to supply mobile phones with training sequence to achieve synchronization. • Random access channel (RACH): - to allow a mobile phone to request for a channel. • Paging channel (PCH): - for a base station to page individual mobile phones and many others.

48. Required Reading • W. Stallings, “Wireless Communications and Networks” Prentice-Hall, 2000. • >> Chapter 10 Optional Reference • K. Pahlavan and K. Krishnamurthy “Principles of Wireless Networks”, Prentice-Hall, 2002.