Cultural Differences

1. Cultural Differences The Female Body & Its Meanings

2. Introduction

3. Emphasis on the Body Females around the world are taught to focus on their bodies: appearance, fertility, purity Researchers suggest that appearance is more central to females’ self-concept than to men’s Examples from many cultures illustrate that women are often urged to transform their bodies—drastically—in order to meet standards of beauty and perfection

4. Fertility and Sexuality In some cultures, menstruation, pregnancy, childbirth, lactation are considered mysterious and powerful In some cultures, virginity is obsessively guarded In other words, women are often defined by their bodies, and their bodies are defined by sexual and reproductive functions

5. Vulnerability Physical/moral weakness Sheltering and seclusion Restrictions on sexuality Relentlessly sexualized

7. Menstruation Positive or negative? Traumatic, lack of information, physical discomfort; some lose close relationship with their fathers (Chicana women; Hurtado, 2003) Saudi Arabia: separated from all males (except brothers and fathers); begin wearing a veil Many Aboriginal cultures: emerging womanly power, celebration

8. Mysterious Menstruation Men are often uncomfortable with the topic because it is viewed as mysterious and ‘strange’ e.g., Menstrual synchrony: women who spend a lot of time together tend to have their periods around the same time

9. Pregnancy North America: joyful & privileged event Many women are abused by their partners during pregnancy; high rates of depression Young, unmarried women may face strong social disapproval Traditional Chinese beliefs: childbirth is an act of extreme spiritual pollution (even though having a child increases status and power in husband’s family)

10. Childbirth Childbirth is a dramatic event—moderated and shaped by the cultural context

11. Controlling the Female Body

12. Female Genital Mutilation/Circumcision • Female genital mutilation: attempts to limit/control female sexuality and reproduction, impairing the woman’s capacity for sexual pleasure, etc. • Over 130 million women worldwide have been circumcised (20+ African countries, Arab countries such as Oman, South Yemen, Egypt, and in Muslim populations such as Indonesia and Malaysia) • Often carried out under dangerous medical conditions • Often performed when girls are between 4 and 8 years old • Extreme pain, heavy bleeding, infection, shock, painful menstruation, urination, and intercourse, and, in many cases, death

13. For “their own good” Clitoridectomy: removal of all or part of the clitoris Infibulation: cutting away of the labia and sealing the wound, leaving only a tiny opening for menstruation and urination In many cultures, females are taught that these procedures are important for the health and beauty It protects them from their “oversexed” nature, saving them from disgrace, temptation, suspicion, and preserves their chastity (which also “protects” the males in their families)

14. Challenging FGM Although it is still practiced, FGM is on the decline and has been outlawed in many countries The United Nations has supported the right of its member countries to offer refugee status to women who flee their countries in fear of FGM

15. FGM in North America & Britain In the 19th century, clitoridectomy was endorsed by physicians as a treatment for “hysteria, epilepsy, melancholy, lesbianism, and excessive masturbation” (American Medical Association) Eight stages of progressive disease: hysteria, spinal irritation, hysterical epilepsy, cataleptic fits, epileptic fits, idiocy, mania, and eventually, death

16. Questions Does banning the practice of female circumcision (FGM) in our country contradict our current emphasis on multiculturalism? Why is it still deemed necessary for women to go through the pain of childbirth? For example, women who chose painkillers, epidurals, and so on, are looked down upon (e.g., as being weak, harming the baby). Other?

17. Virginity Testing • Some villages in Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Turkey: • a bride is returned to her father in disgrace if the sheets from the wedding bed are not bloody; if they ARE bloody, they are often displayed to friends and relatives as a sign that the bride is honourable and pure

18. Abortion Access to abortion is restricted in many cultures but is still extremely common Religious and legal restrictions lead to many back-street procedures that endanger women’s lives Even in places where abortion is legal, women often face the disdain of society (e.g., protesters at abortion clinics)

19. Attitudes toward Abortion Pro-choice More likely to believe in equal rights/responsibilities for men and women Less likely to accept parenthood as the primary role for women Pro-life More likely to have made family roles central to their lives Much more likely to be religious More likely to perceive feminism and homosexuality as threats to the family

20. Seclusion & Veiling Confining the female body Many young girls look forward to wearing a headscarf, veil, cloak (e.g., Muslim traditions); others view these articles of clothing as symbols of restriction and invisibility Iran: women from poor rural families spend most of their lives in “women’s quarters” behind high walls

21. “the objectification of a woman can be done in two ways ... You can strip her naked and use her to sell excitement at a basketball game ... [or] you can cover her up completely and then demand her silence and her absence ... and then when she enters a public space she becomes sexual ... The second way has been mastered by Islamic society ... so that, instead of seeing a woman’s modesty as a passport to public space, it becomes a further barrier” (Azizah magazine, 2001)

22. Displaying the Female Body • Preoccupation with beauty is stereotypically feminine • In many ways, we equate femininity with beauty—and beauty with youth • Central to women’s self concept • Standards of beauty change over time • Standards of beauty differ across cultures

23. The 1950s

24. The 1960s

25. The 1970s

26. The 1980s

27. The 1990s

28. Now versus Then

29. Displaying the Female Body • Body Shape & Weight • Industrialized societies in impose thinness on women • Discrimination, blame, weakness • In developing societies, overweight women may be seen as more beautiful

30. Uganda Hima (Western Uganda) Obese women = beautiful By the time of marriage, some women are so obese that they can barely walk Guests will comment appreciatively on the cracks in her skin, stretch marks, and her difficulty walking Wives are assigned no heavy physical work, rarely leave the home, and spend their days having sex with a variety of men approved by their husbands These sexual relationships cement economic ones, so, therefore, the wife helps to ensure her husband’s prosperity

31. Niger “Fat” is a beauty ideal so prevalent that women take steroids to gain weight and pills to increase their appetites In beauty pageants, the heaviest women win In neighbouring parts of Nigeria, women go to “fattening farms” to gain weight before their weddings

32. China Until the early part of the century, it was common to bind young girls’ feet Small feet were considered a sign of beauty and refinement This caused the feet to be deformed, prevented them from growing to full size, and prevented them from developing the normal strength and flexibility needed for walking Most Chinese girls had a future that included an arranged marriage, serving their mother-in-law, and being submissive to their husbands

33. North America What are the current standards of beauty? How are women in North America affected? What are some of the biggest problems associated with these standards?

34. Displaying the Female Body • Face, skin, & hair • Women in the royal courts of Europe would powder their faces, avoid the sun, and ingest arsenic to achieve the right pallor • African women: skin bleaching, hair straightening/dyeing • Caucasian women: tanning & hair curling …?

35. Displaying the Female Body • Facial features • Thinner eyebrows, larger eyes, hairstyles that make the face seem thinner, define cheekbones, coloured contact lenses • Cosmetic surgery: wrinkles and blemished are not attractive • Blonde is the dominant beauty standard • Long hair

36. Summary Women are largely defined by their bodies Much emphasis has been placed on controlling women by controlling their bodies No matter how much or how little of their bodies women are allowed to show, they are taught to be very concerned with appearance