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Background. Virtual memory – separation of user logical memory from physical memory. Only part of the program needs to be in memory for execution. Logical address space can therefore be much larger than physical address space. Allows address spaces to be shared by several processes.
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Background • Virtual memory – separation of user logical memory from physical memory. • Only part of the program needs to be in memory for execution. • Logical address space can therefore be much larger than physical address space. • Allows address spaces to be shared by several processes. • Allows for more efficient process creation. • Virtual memory can be implemented via: • Demand paging • Demand segmentation
Demand Paging • Bring a page into memory only when it is needed. • Less I/O needed • Less memory needed • Faster response • More users • Page is needed reference to it • invalid reference abort • not-in-memory bring to memory
Page Fault • If there is ever a reference to a page, first reference will trap to OS page fault • OS decides: • Invalid reference abort. • Just not in memory. • Get empty frame.
Page Fault • Get empty frame. • Swap page into frame. • Reset tables, validation bit = 1. • Restart instruction
What happens if there is no free frame? • Page replacement – find some page in memory, but not really in use, swap it out. • algorithm • performance – want an algorithm which will result in minimum number of page faults. • Same page may be brought into memory several times.
Page Replacement • Use modify (dirty) bit to reduce overhead of page transfers – only modified pages are written to disk. • Page replacement completes separation between logical memory and physical memory – large virtual memory can be provided on a smaller physical memory.
Basic Page Replacement • Find the location of the desired page on disk. • Find a free frame: - If there is a free frame, use it. - If there is no free frame, use a page replacement algorithm to select a victim frame. • Read the desired page into the (newly) free frame. Update the page and frame tables. • Restart the process.
Page Replacement Algorithms • Want lowest page-fault rate. • Evaluate algorithm by running it on a particular string of memory references (reference string) and computing the number of page faults on that string. • In examples, the reference string is: 7,0,1,2,0, 3,0,4,2,3, 0,3,2,1,2,0,1,7,0,1
Optimal Algorithm • Replace page that will not be used for longest period of time. • Used for measuring how well your algorithm performs.
First-In-First-Out • Throw out the page that has been in memory the longest. • Good when talking about a set of pages for initialization. • Bad when talking about heavily used variable.
Problem with FIFO • Considers only time when loaded into system. Not whether it has been used. • Set of “second chance” algorithms that use the reference bit in page table entry to determine if it has been recently used. • Example: Clock Page Replacement Algorithm.
Least Recently Used (LRU) Algorithm • Based on principal of “Locality of Reference”. • A page that has been used in the near past is likely to be used in the near future. • LRU: Determine the least recently used page in memory and evict it. • Can be done but very expensive.
Software Approximations to LRU • Not Frequently Used (NFU). • Associate a software counter with each page. • On timer interrupt, OS scans all pages in memory. • For each page, the R bit (Referenced bit)is added to the counter. • Page with lowest count is evicted.
Problem with NFU • It never forgets. • A page referenced often in earlier phases of the program may not be evicted long after it has been used. • Would like to have an algorithm that “ages” the count. That is, the latest references should be the most important.
Aging Algorithm for Simulating LRU • On each timer interrupt scan the pages to get the R bit. • Shift right one bit of the counter. • Place the R bit in the leftmost bit of the counter. • Choose the page to evict that has the lowest count.
Example Assume all counters are currently 0. Consider the case when pages 0,2,4, and 5 are referenced between last interrupt.
Simulating LRU in Software • The aging algorithm simulates LRU in software
Simulating LRU in Software • The aging algorithm simulates LRU in software Assume references 0,1, and 4 next window.
Simulating LRU in Software • The aging algorithm simulates LRU in software
Simulating LRU in Software Assume 0,1,3,5 • The aging algorithm simulates LRU in software
Simulating LRU in Software • The aging algorithm simulates LRU in software
Allocation of Frames • Each process needs minimum number of pages. • Two major allocation schemes. • fixed allocation • Variable allocation. • Replacement Scope can be: • Local. • Global.
Fixed Allocation, Local Scope • Number of pages per process is fixed based on some criteria. • Can use equal allocation or proportional allocation. • Equal allocation – e.g., if 100 frames and 5 processes, give each 20 pages. • What are the drawbacks of equal allocation?
Fixed Allocation, Local Scope • Proportional Allocation • Allocate page size based on the size of the process. • Problem?
Fixed Allocation, Local Scope • Equal allocation – e.g., if 100 frames and 5 processes, give each 20 pages. • What are the drawbacks of this approach? • Allocation may be too small causing significant paging. • Allocation may too large reducing number of processes in memory and wasting memory that could be used by other processes.
Fixed Allocation, Local Scope • Proportional Allocation • Allocate page size based on the size of the process. • Problem? • Process needs will vary over its execution leading to the same problems as equal-size pages.
Problem with Fixed Allocation Schemes • All processes treated the same. No priorities. • Can use process priority rather than size to allocate frames.
Variable Allocation, Global Replacement • When a page fault occurs, new page frame allocated to the process. • Page replacement based on previous approaches: e.g., LRU, FIFO, etc. • No consideration of which process should (or can best afford) to lose a page. • Can lead to high page-fault rates.
Thrashing • If a process does not have “enough” pages, the page-fault rate is very high. This leads to: • low CPU utilization. • operating system thinks that it needs to increase the degree of multiprogramming. • another process added to the system. • Thrashing a process is busy swapping pages in and out.
Working-Set Model: Local Scope, Variable Allocation • working-set window a fixed number of page references Example: 10,000 instruction • WSSi (working set of Process Pi) =total number of pages referenced in the most recent (varies in time) • if too small will not encompass entire locality. • if too large will encompass several localities. • if = will encompass entire program. • D = WSSi total demand frames • if D > m Thrashing • Policy if D > m, then suspend one of the processes.
Page-Fault Frequency Scheme • Establish “acceptable” page-fault rate. • If actual rate too low, process loses frame. • If actual rate too high, process gains frame.
Other Considerations • Prepaging: Predicting future page requests. • Page size selection • fragmentation • table size • I/O overhead
Other Considerations • TLB Reach - The amount of memory accessible from the TLB. • TLB Reach = (TLB Size) X (Page Size) • Ideally, the working set of each process is stored in the TLB.
Increasing the Size of the TLB • Increase the Page Size. • This may lead to an increase in fragmentation as not all applications require a large page size. • Provide Multiple Page Sizes. • This allows applications that require larger page sizes the opportunity to use them without an increase in fragmentation.
Other Considerations • I/O Interlock – Pages must sometimes be locked into memory. • Consider I/O. Pages that are used for copying a file from a device must be locked from being selected for eviction by a page replacement algorithm.