Ch 1: Scientific Understanding of Behavior Ch 4: Studying Behavior

1. Ch 1: Scientific Understanding of Behavior Ch 4: Studying Behavior

2. The Scientific Method • A scientific approach to knowledge is empirical rather than intuitive • Empiricism is knowledge based on observations • Data are collected that form the basis of conclusions • Uses rules for collecting and evaluating data

3. Hypothesis • A tentative explanation for something [Ch2, p17]; a testable statement: “Square chopsticks work better than round chopsticks” • An operational definitiondescribes the variables and techniques the researcher uses to measure or manipulate a variable. “ In transferring uncooked pennette pasta from one bowl to another, square chopsticks lead to better performance (i.e., more pasta transferred) than round chopsticks.”

4. Variable: any event, situation, or behavior that varies • Situational variables describe characteristics of the environment. • Response variables are the responses or behaviors of individuals. • Participant or subject variables are individual differences. • Mediating variables are psychological processes that mediate the effects of a situational variable on a particular response.

5. Which of the following is NOT a variable? • Hair color • Inches in a foot • Weight • Attitudes on gun control • Intelligence scores

6. Which of the following is NOT a variable? Variable: any event, situation, or behavior that varies • Hair color • Inches in a foot • Weight • Attitudes on gun control • Intelligence scores

7. Relationships Between Variables • A correlation exists when • there is a relationship or association among variables • two different measures of the same people, events, or things vary together (covary) How is chopstick shape correlated with transference of pasta? Do square chopsticks and more pasta transferred go together? How does proficiency with chopsticks correlate with pasta transference?

8. Experimental method • Scientists manipulate one or more variables and observe the effects of this manipulation on behavior. • Independent variables: The factors that the researcher controls or manipulates in order to determine their effect on behavior • Dependent variables: The measures of behavior that are used to assess the effect (if any) of the independent variables

9. In an experiment… • researchers typically wish to identify the causes of a phenomenon. Example: Do square chopsticks cause the number of pasta pieces transferred to increase? Does being rejected cause anxiety?

10. A causal inference may be made when there is… • covariation of cause and effect, • a time-order relationship (temporal precedence), and • elimination of alternative explanations

11. Experimental control • An attempt to keep all extraneous variables constant • Randomization (random assignment) Comparable groups are formed by assigning subjects randomly to conditions prior to implementing the independent variable

12. Confounding • occurs when two potentially effective independent variables are allowed to covary simultaneously. • It is impossible to determine what variable is responsible for any obtained difference in performance. • A confounding variable is an unexpected, uncontrolled variable, sometimes called the third-variable problem.

13. In applied research… • psychologists conduct research in order to change people’s lives for the better. • Applied research is conducted to address issues in which there are practical problems and potential solutions. • Program evaluation

14. Basic research… • seeks primarily to understand behavior and mental processes. • asks questions about the nature of behavior - Theoretical issues concerning phenomena such as cognition, emotion, motivation, learning, psychobiology, personality development, and social behavior.

15. Applied or Basic Research? Chopsticks Challenge?

16. Test Yourself: Applied or Basic Research? 1) What are the predictors of teenage sexual behavior?

17. Test Yourself: Applied or Basic Research? 1) What are the predictors of teenage sexual behavior? BASIC

18. Test Yourself: Applied or Basic Research? 2) In what ways can video games increase aggression among children?

19. Test Yourself: Applied or Basic Research? 2) In what ways can video games increase aggression among children? APPLIED

20. Test Yourself: Applied or Basic Research? 3) How do neurons generate neurotransmitters?

21. Test Yourself: Applied or Basic Research? 3) How do neurons generate neurotransmitters? BASIC

22. Test Yourself: Applied or Basic Research? 4) Does memory process visual images and sound simultaneously?

23. Test Yourself: Applied or Basic Research? 4) Does memory process visual images and sound simultaneously? BASIC

24. Test Yourself: Applied or Basic Research? 5) How can peer groups influence romantic behavior?

25. Test Yourself: Applied or Basic Research? 5) How can peer groups influence romantic behavior? APPLIED

26. Test Yourself: Applied or Basic Research? 6) Which coping strategies are best for tsunami survivors?

27. Test Yourself: Applied or Basic Research? 6) Which coping strategies are best for tsunami survivors? APPLIED

28. Evaluating Research: Three Validities • Construct validity – the adequacy of the operational definitions • Internal validity – the ability to draw conclusions about causal relationships • External validity – the extent to which the results can be generalized to other populations and settings