“The middle ages showed us the results of thinking without experimentation, our present century shows us what experiment

1. “The middle ages showed us the results of thinking without experimentation, our present century shows us what experimentation without thinking leads to.” E. Napp Arthur Schopenhauer

2. An Age of Fiefs and Faith • Within the new kingdoms of Western Europe, a highly fragmented and decentralized society with great local variation emerged • Thousands of independent, self-sufficient, and largely isolated landed estates or manors emerged • Powerful lords were in constant competition • Lesser lords and knights swore allegiance to greater lords thus becoming vassals -Vassals received land and booty in return for military service to their lords (Feudalism) E. Napp

3. Roman slavery gave way to serfdom. Serfs were not personal property and could not be arbitrarily thrown off the land. They were allowed to live in families but they were bound to masters’ estates as peasant laborers. E. Napp

4. Serfs owed various payments and services to their lords • In return, a serf family received a small farm and as much protection as the lord could provide • In the absence of a central Roman authority, the only available security lay in these communities, where the ties to kin, manor, and lord constituted the primary human loyalties • Feudalism in Western Europe was a world apart from the stability of life in imperial Rome or its continuation in Byzantium • Also filling the vacuum left by the collapse of a central government was the Roman Catholic Church -Its hierarchical organization of popes, bishops, and priests was modeled on the Roman Empire E. Napp

5. The Roman Catholic Church began the process of converting many of Europe’s “pagan” peoples, sometimes peacefully and sometimes through coercion. The Church provided unity and stability during a time of political fragmentation. E. Napp

6. December 25th was selected as the birthday of Jesus, for it was associated with the winter solstice, the coming of more light and the rebirth of various deities • By 1100, most of Europe had embraced Christianity • The Roman Catholic Church provided a cultural unity in a time of political fragmentation • But there were controversies involving the Church too -The Investiture Controversy during the eleventh and twelfth centuries developed as Church officials, kings and emperors debated who had the right to make Church appointments E. Napp

7. Eventually, the Church won the right to appoint its own officials while secular rulers retained an informal and symbolic role in the process. E. Napp

8. The pace of change in the West picked up considerably in the several centuries after 1000 • For the preceding 300 years, Europe had been subject to repeated invasions from every direction -Muslim armies conquered Spain -Magyar (Hungarian) invasions from the east -Viking incursions from the north -But by 1000, these invasions had been checked and invaders absorbed into settled societies • Greater security and stability accelerated the tempo of change • Also a generally warming trend after 750 reached its peak in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, enhancing agricultural production E. Napp

9. Commonly called the High Middle Ages, a new period of expansion and growth occurred. E. Napp

10. Population increase led to deforestation and by 1300, the forest cover of Europe had been reduced to about 20 percent of the land area • The increased production associated with agricultural expansion stimulated growth in long-distance trade, much of which had dried up in the aftermath of the Roman collapse -One center of commercial activity lay in Northern Europe from England to the Baltic coast -Another trading network centered on the northern Italian towns such as Florence, Genoa, and Venice and their trading partners in the Islamic and Byzantine worlds • Urbanization was proceeding as towns and cities attracted new groups of people E. Napp

11. Merchants, bankers, artisans, and university-trained professionals were attracted to cities and towns and many groups organized themselves into guilds or associations of people pursuing the same line of work in order to regulate their respective professions. E. Napp

12. While women were initially active in a number of urban professions, by the fifteenth century, opportunities for women were declining • Men increasingly took over these previously women-dominated professions (due to technological progress that replaced some hand work) and trained their sons as apprentices • But religious life provided opportunities for women -As in Buddhist lands, nunneries offered relative freedom from male control • A further sign of change lay in the growth of territorial states with more effective institutions of government commanding the loyalty of subjects E. Napp

13. Since the disintegration of the Roman Empire, Europeans’ loyalties had focused on the family, the manor, or the religious community, but seldom on the state. But in the eleventh through the thirteenth century, the nominal monarchs of Europe gradually and painfully began to consolidate their authority, and the outlines of French, English, Spanish, and Scandinavian states began to appear with distinct languages and cultures. E. Napp

14. The Crusades • Beginning in 1095, the Crusades or a series of “holy wars” captured the imagination of the West • Europeans believed that the Crusades were wars undertaken at God’s command and authorized by the pope as the Vicar of Christ on earth • Crusaders were offered an indulgence, which removed the penalties of any confessed sins as well as various material benefits • The most famous Crusades were those aimed at wresting Jerusalem and the holy places of Christendom from Islamic control E. Napp

15. But by 1291, the Muslim forces had recaptured all of the temporary Christian states established in the eastern Mediterranean. The Crusades were “successful failures” for the Europeans for they never permanently controlled the “Holy Land” but they received many new ideas from the Islamic golden age. E. Napp

16. The Crusades demonstrated a growing European capacity for organization, finance, transportation, and recruitment, made all the more impressive by the absence of any centralized direction for the project • But also tremendous cruelty, as Crusaders slaughtered Muslims and Jews • Crusading was not limited to targets in the Islamic Middle East -Christians, both Spanish and foreign, waged war for centuries to reclaim the Iberian Peninsula from Muslim hands -Scandinavian and German warriors took part in wars to conquer, settle, and convert lands along the Baltic Sea E. Napp

17. Even the Byzantine Empire and Russia, both Eastern Orthodox Christian lands, were also on the receiving end of Western crusading, as were Christian heretics and various enemies of the pope in Europe itself. Crusading, in short, was a pervasive feature of European expansion, which persisted as Europeans began their oceanic voyages in the fifteenth century and beyond. E. Napp

18. Interaction with the Islamic world had long-term consequences -Spain, Sicily, and the Baltic region were brought permanently into the world of Western Christendom -A declining Byzantium was furthered weakened by the Crusader sacking of Constantinople in 1204 and left even more vulnerable to Turkish conquest -In Europe, popes strengthened their positions, at least for a time, in their continuing struggles with secular authorities -Tens of thousands of Europeans came into personal contact with the Islamic world, from which they picked up a taste for the many luxury goods available there, stimulating a demand for European goods E. Napp

19. Europeans also learned techniques for producing sugar on large plantations using slave labor, a process that had incalculable consequences in later centuries as Europeans transferred the plantation system to the Americas. E. Napp

20. Muslim scholarship, together with the Greek learning it incorporated, also flowed into Europe, largely through Spain and Sicily • The cross-cultural contacts born of crusading opened channels of trade, technology transfer, and intellectual exchange • But cross-cultural contacts also hardened cultural barriers between peoples -The rift between Eastern Orthodoxy and Roman Catholicism deepened further -Christian anti-Semitism was both expressed and exacerbated as Crusaders massacred Jews in a number of European cities on their way to Jerusalem E. Napp

21. European empire building, especially in the Americas, continued the crusading spirit. E. Napp

22. As the hybrid civilization of the West evolved, it was clearly less developed in comparison to Byzantium, China, India, and the Islamic world • Its cities were smaller, its political authorities weaker, its economy less commercialized, its technology inferior to the more established civilizations • But Europeans proved quite willing to engage with and borrow from the more advanced civilizations of the east -When the road to China opened in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, Europeans, including the merchant-traveler Marco Polo, were more than willing to take the long journey E. Napp

23. Technological borrowing was evident in agriculture and war. Gunpowder was invented in China, but Europeans were probably the first to use it in cannons, in the early fourteenth century, and by 1500, they had the most advanced arsenals in the world. E. Napp

24. In addition, a three-way struggle for power among kings, warrior aristocrats, and church leaders, all of them from the nobility, enabled urban-based merchants in Europe to achieve an unusual independence from political authority • This paved the way to a more thorough development of capitalism in later centuries • A further feature of this emerging European civilization was a distinctive intellectual tension between the claims of human reason and those of faith • Earlier cathedral schools became “zones of intellectual autonomy” • A new interest in rational thought E. Napp

25. Slowly, the scientific study of nature, known as “natural philosophy” began to separate itself from theology. E. Napp

26. A mounting enthusiasm for rational inquiry stimulated European scholars to seek out original Greek texts • The integration of political and religious life in the Islamic world, as in Byzantium, contrasted with their separation in the West • In the West, there was more space for the independent pursuit of scientific subjects • So, as change accelerated in the High Middle Ages, so too did a new way of looking at the world and this borrowing, adapting, and emphasis of rational thought in Western Europe would have profound repercussions for world history E. Napp

27. E. Napp

28. Strayer Questions • What replaced the Roman order in Western Europe? • In what ways was European civilization changing after 1000? • What was the impact of the Crusades in world history? • In what ways did borrowing from abroad shape European civilization after 1000? E. Napp

29. Why was Europe unable to achieve the kind of political unity that China experienced? What impact did this have on the subsequent history of Europe? • In what different ways did classical Greek philosophy and science have an impact in the West, in Byzantium, and in the Islamic world? E. Napp