French-English Relations in Canada

1. French-English Relations in Canada A clash of paradigms

2. Language cleavages are politically explosive • Closely tied to culture and religion • Fundamental to identity • Governments cannot disengage from language as they can from other cleavages • Communication is fundamental to democratic politics; language is central to communication

3. Demographics (2001 census)

4. Realities of language in Canada • Most of Canada’s Francophones live in Quebec • Linguistic minorities tend to be small in most provinces (except for New Brunswick) • The “bilingual belt” • Process of linguistic assimilation of linguistic minorities • English is a socially powerful language

5. Canada is a federal state • Only a small proportion of the world’s countries (less than ten per cent) are federal nations • Canada is one of the oldest and most successful federal states in the world • Federalism can be used to accommodate diversity • Canadian federalism reflects the ways Quebec was different in 1867 • The emphasis was on Quebec’s Catholicism, not its language

6. Two paradigms for accommodating linguistic diversity Territorial approach • Language of public life contingent on where you live • Idea is to provide a sense of linguistic security for minorities • Bilingualism typically limited to national organizations

7. Two paradigms for accommodating linguistic diversity Personality approach • Language policy defined in terms of rights • Language rights are attached to individuals, not to territories • Emphasis on personal mobility and personal bilingualism • Bilingualism pervasive

8. Two theses • French-English relations can best be understood as a clash between these two paradigms • Because federalism was the institutional solution designed to resolve the problem of accommodating Quebec, much of the debate centres on Quebec’s place in the federal system

9. The Quiet Revolution • Associated with government of Jean Lesage (1960-1966) • A period of modernization in Quebec • The provincial state replaced the church at the heart of Quebec’s political life • Linguistic division of labour • Quebec’s provincial government became more assertive about Quebec’s place in Canada and federalism • Quebecois, not French Canadian

10. What did Quebec want? • Full control over provincial jurisdiction • The federal government to extricate itself from provincial jurisdiction • Greater provincial power • Increased say over federal institutions • Recognition of “special status”

11. The federal response • Rights-based approach to national bilingualism • Pierre Elliot Trudeau, Prime Minister from 1968-1979, 1980-1984 • Official Languages Act (1969) • Re-making the federal public service • Promoting linguistic minorities and personal bilingualism • A rejection of any special recognition of Quebec • Quebec’s response was Bill 22

12. The rise of the sovereigntists • Parti Quebecois (PQ) founded by dissidents who left the provincial Liberal party • Led by Rene Levesque • PQ grew steadily in support • Won the 1976 provincial election with 41% of the vote and a majority government

13. Etapisme: taking it slow PQ settled on a step by step approach to sovereignty • Govern well (Bill 101) • Call a referendum to get a mandate to negotiate with Ottawa • Negotiate with Ottawa • Have the outcome of the negotiations ratified in another referendum

14. The 1980 referendum • A soft question: asked for a mandate to negotiate sovereignty association • Bitter, divisive campaign • 60% “Non” – 40% “Oui” • Economic fears loomed large in the vote • PQ may have miscalculated in its referendum strategy • PQ re-elected in 1981

15. Constitutional negotiations • Canada did not control the amendment of its own constitution • Trudeau wanted to patriate the constitution with a Charter of Rights • 8 provincial governments, including Quebec’s opposed Trudeau • Compromise reached, but Quebec did not agree

16. Constitution Act, 1982 • Applies to all of Canada, including Quebec, even though Quebec did not agree • Charter of Rights enshrined personality approach to national bilingualism in the constitution • Enhanced the idea of provincial equality: Quebec did not achieve recognition of special status or increased power

17. Change at the top • Brian Mulroney takes over as Prime Minister in 1984: wants to bring Quebec into the constitution • Now a Liberal provincial government, led by Robert Bourassa • Bourassa outlines five conditions for Quebec to sign the constitution

18. Quebec’s five conditions • Recognition as a “distinct society” • Limitation on federal government intrusion in provincial jurisdiction • Role in appointing justices to the Supreme Court of Canada • Increased power over immigration • A veto over any constitutional change

19. Meech Lake Accord (1987) • Mulroney wins agreement of all ten premiers to change the constitution • Enshrines Quebec’s five conditions in the constitution • Ten provincial governments and the federal government have to ratify the agreement within three years • Newfoundland and Manitoba fail to do so by 1990: the Accord dies

20. Charlottetown Accord (1992) • Much anger in Quebec • Sovereigntist sentiment on the rise • Again, federal government and provinces agree on constitution package, called the Charlottetown Accord • Defeated in a national referendum: 55% No, 45% Yes • Defeated in Quebec as well

21. Reinvigorated sovereigntist movement • Bloc Quebecois forms as a national political party in 1990, wins 54 of Quebec’s 75 seats in Parliament in 1993 • Parti Quebecois wins the 1994 provincial election • Announces a referendum in 1995 • Narrow victory for the federalists: 50.6% Non, 49.4% Oui • Federal government weak in referendum

22. Federal Response: Plan A • A shaken federal government tries to respond to Quebec’s historical demands • But limited because there is no appetite for constitutional reform in Canada • Passes Parliamentary resolutions to recognize Quebec as a distinct society and to give Quebec a veto

23. Federal Response: Plan B • Legal challenge to constitutionality of Quebec sovereignty • Supreme Court of Canada in 1998 rules that it is unconstitutional for Quebec to secede without the consent of the other provinces, but if Quebeckers vote in a referendum to leave, the rest of Canada has to respond • Clarity Act sets out the rules for Quebec secession

24. The current situation • The essential problem remains unsolved • Quebeckers and much of Canada conceive of their country in different ways • Quebec: Quebec is distinct and may require different powers • ROC: all provinces are equal • We’ve papered over the differences

25. The future? • Sovereigntist sentiment is currently in decline • Parti Quebecois lost the 2003 provincial election quite badly • Bloc Quebecois’ support is in decline • Demographic change in Quebec • Evidence that Quebeckers have grown tired of the debate over sovereignty • 55% (63% of those under 45) do not identify themselves as sovereigntist or federalist (CRIC)

26. For further reading Kenneth McRoberts, Misconceiving Canada: The Struggle for National Unity (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1997).