Exploring Anti-English Sentiment in Scottish Sport: A Narrative Analysis

1. 'Anyone But England‘, Glasgow 2014 and the independence referendum: exploring the role of narratives in the sociological study of Scottish sport Stuart Whigham St Mary's University College & Loughborough University

2. Aims • Critically reflect upon potential uses of narrative analysis within sociological study of sport • Critically consider expression of anti-English sentiment by Scots in relation to both sporting and wider social contexts, drawing upon the conceptual framework of ‘narrative identity’ proposed by Somers (1994) and findings from MSc dissertation • Reflect upon benefits of adopting a narrative analysis approach, outlining the proposed use of similar methods within my PhD research on the 2014 Glasgow Commonwealth Games and the Scottish independence referendum

3. 'Anyone But England'? • Studies of Scottish sport often discuss rivalry between Scotland and England - one aspect of Scottish national identity is display of anti-English sentiment • Argued to be most evident during major sporting events (Blain and Boyle, 1994; Watson, 2003) - received significant media attention during 2010 FIFA World Cup following sale of ‘Anyone But England’ T-shirts in stores in Scotland (BBC News, 2010; Collins, 2010; Hassan, 2010; Kelly, 2010) • However, topic of anti-English sentiment has only acted as the central focal point of discussion in the work of certain authors (Bairner, 1994; Moorhouse, 1984, 1986, 1987, 1995)

4. Anti-Englishness • Miller (2005) argues England represents the ‘significant other’ for Scottish identity in comparative terms, although seldom reciprocated • Expression of anti-English sentiment on personal, social, cultural or political level can range from comical remarks to more violent and abusive actions (Hussain and Miller, 2005a, 2005b; McIntosh, Sim and Robertson 2004a; Watson, 2003) • Lack of studies which frame topic in context of the wider sociological, historical and political factors underpinning relationship between Scots and English

5. Anti-Englishness in Sport • Work of Moorhouse (1984, 1986, 1987, 1994, 1995) is most comprehensive consideration of anti-Englishness in Scottish sport: • dependent relationship between Scotland and England as primary factor • ‘repressed nationalism’ for Scots in sport – lack of political nationalism? • notions of superiority and inferiority • resentment due to migration flows of Scottish footballers to England • Bairner (1994, 2001) argues anti-Englishness is one of main ingredients of Scottish sporting identity - offers sense of unity, overcoming other religious, socio-economic or regional schisms • In contrast, Dimeo and Finn (2001), Giulianotti (1991) and Kelly 2007) adopt more cautious position regarding extent of anti-Englishness

6. Methodology - Narrative Analysis • Hall (1990) argues we need to construct a stable ‘narrative of self’ which synthesises contrasting multiple identities into more coherent form • Somers (1994) uses concept of ‘narrative identity’ to argue that narratives are means by which individuals are able to make coherent sense of their various isolated experiences • Argues concept of ‘narrative identity’ allows for relational and historical approach to identity which allows analysis of dialectical relationship between self at agency level and society at structural level (Somers, 1994; Somers and Gibson, 1994)

7. Somers (1994) – Narrative Identity METANARRATIVE (Master stories embedded in history/culture) PUBLIC NARRATIVE (Stories in institutions) ONTOLOGICAL NARRATIVE (Personal story)

8. Empirical Methods • 13 semi-structured interviews ranging from 35 to 135 minutes with Scots migrants living in England • Theoretical snowball sampling strategy to provide range of age and gender representation and to circumvent issues of access • Data analysed using thematic narrative analysis strategy with two aims: • identifying themes relating to public and ontological narratives of Scottish national identity and anti-English sentiment • identify commonalities between respondents in relation to identity, motivations for migration, and personal backgrounds

9. 'Anyone But England‘? Research Findings & Reflections

10. The ‘Underdog Mentality’ • Central narrative was existence of ‘underdog mentality’ in Scotland - discussed by 9 respondents • Common bond felt with other nations who possess similar traits • Referred to with regards to Scotland’s relationship with England in both sporting and wider context: “We’re… perceived… whether rightly or wrongly, perceived to have limited resources, y’know, it’s a little sort of David against Goliath kind of thing, y’know. Um… so I’m rooting them on because they’re the underdogs generally anyway, and because I’m Scottish and I want to see anyone do well.” (Richard) “And then you have this group mentality of… always just like, y’know… I think you have this feeling of Scotland always the underdog, and you always want the underdog to do well, don’t you?” (Morag)

11. Education Literature Sport PUBLIC NARRATIVES Popular History Family Interactions Political Discourse TV & Films ‘Underdog Mentality’in Public Narratives • ‘Underdog mentality’ transmitted in a number of different fashions within Scottish society:

12. Anti-Englishness in Sport • Majority of interviewees (7 out of 13) indicated support for England’s sporting opposition: “I just don’t want to lose to England. It’s not so much the winning, it’s just not wanting to lose. And it’s the same when they play someone else. I don’t actually want them to lose. I just don’t want them to win.” (Scott) • Others demonstrated more supportive views, consistently or strategically: “I’m very much for England, whoever they play. I like to see them do as well as they can… living here for all this time, I don’t really have any issues with the English.” (Paul) “I kind of try to formalise a bit… I never want them to win a friendly, because I’m not harming England, it’s just funny. I love it when they lose to small teams… but in tournaments, my rule of thumb is that I support them providing they play well” (Bert)

13. Anti-Englishness in Sport • Common view that football was main sport in which anti-English sentiment was expressed • Rugby was also a domain in which anti-English stances were voiced, but less intense and common compared to football – impact of social class representation in the sports’ support? • Cricket exception to norm - number of respondents who expressed more intense attitudes of anti-English sentiment in football and rugby changed tack dramatically • Individual sports such as athletics, tennis and golf argued to be less afflicted by anti-English sentiment - although Scots given additional support over their English counterparts

14. Enjoyment at Failure Anthems Media Expectations Biased Commentary Distinction Fear of Victory Fun & Banter REASONS Relief Performing Stereotype Jealousy Vicarious Enjoyment Siding with Underdogs Reasons for Anti-Englishness in Sport • Interviewees identified various reasons for anti-English sentiment:

15. Anti-Englishness in Society • No interviewees felt they personally demonstrated any anti-English sentiment outside of sport – argued that sport appears to be ‘fair game’ for expression of such opinions • However, wide acceptance that elements of anti-English sentiment did exist in attitudes and behaviours of fellow Scots • Most argued this was minority viewpoint - though some argued anti-English feeling in Scotland was more widespread. • Demonstrated in verbal abuse directed towards England and the English, echoing findings of McIntosh, Sim and Robertson (2004a: 48), who argued that the English accent acts a “marker of difference”

16. Anti-Englishness in Society • Majority of respondents refuted suggestion that anti-Englishness was racist or xenophobic - some more willing to accept accusations of more deep-seated negativity • Extreme views were explained though territorial defensiveness and tribal mentality amongst Scots • ‘Underdog mentality’ of Scots argued to be used by this perceived minority as justification for more serious attitudes and behaviours • Demonstrates manner in which underdog ‘public narratives’ can potentially influence the ‘ontological narratives’ and subsequent behaviour of certain Scots

17. Unorthodox ‘Ontological Narratives’ • Family background influential in shaping each individual’s sense of national identity - unorthodox examples demonstrate insight into formation of ontological narratives of self-identity: • Bert: both parents born in England but own identification of Scottish nationality was clear - expressing this to fellow Scots required justification • Scott: both parents Scottish but moved to Carlisle when 7 – proud Scot but felt like fraud due to accent • Richard: both parents Scottish but emigrated to Canada when 4 and lived in Oxford from aged of 12 – Scottish identity but English accent • Consideration of personal narratives of each individual allowed reflection on ‘outlier’ cases to provide nuanced appreciation, rather than futility of seeking generalisability

18. Reflections on Narrative Analysis • Daiute and Lightfoot (2004) summarise main benefits of narrative analysis: • designed to examine phenomena holistically • narratives provide contexts for examining social histories which influence identity & development • narrative analysis offers insight into range of forces that order relations between self and society • narrative analysis permits incursion of value and evaluation into research process as a primary aim, rather than biases to be avoided • Facilitated analysis of how individual subjective identities are shaped by structural factors • Study should by no means be viewed as a polemic towards the need to adopt narrative methodologies and philosophies over all other methods of study

19. Reflections on Somers Model • Epistemological stance argues that narratives adopted by a given individual must be examined empirically given their individualised and shifting nature, helping social scientists to avoid presupposing narratives individuals create and use • Examining the dialectical relationship between ‘public’ and ‘ontological’ narratives of Scottish identity demonstrated that myths and stories prevalent in Scottish society impact upon individual’s understanding of what it means to be ‘Scottish’ • Application of theoretical framework gives research methodology appearance of deductive approach - however employed in more heuristic and exploratory manner, with aim of evaluating analytical utility of framework vis-à-vis the empirical data generated – ‘abductive’ research strategy (Blaikie, 2010)

20. Conclusions METANARRATIVE (Scotland as 'underdog' vis-a-vis England) PUBLIC NARRATIVE ('Underdog' narratives in history, politics, literature and sport) ONTOLOGICAL NARRATIVE ('Underdog mentality' used to justify anti-English sentiment)

21. PhD Research Methodology Scottish Political Narratives & Discourse – 2014 Commonwealth Games & Independence Referendum

22. PhD Research Proposal ‘Scotland’s future and 2014 - political narratives of the Glasgow Commonwealth Games and the independence referendum’ • Aims of project: • Critically examine predominant political narratives which emanate from political discourse in relation to 2014 Glasgow Commonwealth Games and Scottishe independence referendum • Scrutinise extent to which staging of the Commonwealth Games in Scotland is exploited politically in relation to debates about Scotland’s constitutional future

23. PhD Methodology- Narrative Analysis • Analysis will centre on production and dissemination of political narratives and discourse relating to both the Commonwealth Games and the independence referendum • Content of official party political communication sources will be critically analysed, along with the production processes and decision-making which underpinned its creation • Importance of developing coherent narratives in order to develop and sustain effective political campaigns has been acknowledged in recent studies of political communication (Roberts and Crossley, 2004; McNair, 2011) • Negrine (2008) argues that such coherence is required to communicate effectively within the ‘post-modern / professional’ era of political communication

24. PhD Methodology– Discourse Analysis • Methodological framework also draws upon Habermasian notions of the ‘public sphere’ to consider shifting nature of political discourse and dialogue in contemporary public life • Emphasis placed on importance of considering both the ‘impact’ and ‘effects’ of political communication (Seymour-Ure, 1974; Negrine, 2008) • Political and societal factors which impact upon these processes will be examined using principles of critical discourse analysis in order to gain appreciation of the content, structure and production of these forms of political communication (Fairclough, 2001, 2009; Wodak and Meyer, 2009)

25. PhD Methodology– Empirical Methods • Primary data collection includes interviews, surveys and other communication with selected political stakeholders in Scotland, plus members of the Scottish electorate in order to investigate audience attitudes towards prevalent political narratives • Secondary data will be gathered relating to political narratives involving 2014 Commonwealth Games and independence referendum e.g. speech transcripts, press releases, political publications and other relevant sources • Secondary data analysis will draw upon the principles of both critical discourse analysis and narrative analysis, with emphasis again identifying narrative forms, tropes and categories associated with each data item

26. 'Anyone But England‘, Glasgow 2014 and the independence referendum: exploring the role of narratives in the sociological study of Scottish sport Stuart Whigham St Mary's University College & Loughborough University