Struggles for Democracy and Global Interdependence

1. Struggles for Democracy and Global Interdependence AP World History Unit #16 Chapter 35 and 36

2. Brasilia / Land Reform Brasilia – Capital City of Brazil built under the direction Juscelino Kubitschek, President from 1956 to 1961. Kubitschek built the city using borrowed money from the United States and Europe and, as a result, foreign debt soared and inflation shot up. Land Reform – Breaking up large estates and distributing that land to peasants; Conservative Brazilian politicians opposed land reform. In 1964, with the blessing of conservative, wealthy Brazilians, the army seized power in a military coup. The largest, both geographically and in population, in Latin America; Following WWII Brazil experienced severe economic problems, leading the military to seize control in 1964. The military stayed in power until 1985, leading economic growth which benefited the military but left the majority of Brazilians in poverty. Like other Latin American countries, Brazil experienced severe economic problems following World War II. When democratically elected governments proved unable to solve these problems, the military stepped in and seized control in 1964. The armed forces remained in direct control of the country for the next 20 years. The military set a new economic direction, reducing government interference in the economy and stressing free-market forces. Beginning in 1968, the new policies seemed to be working. Brazil experienced an “economic miracle” as its economy grew spectacularly. Ordinary Brazilians benefited little from this economic growth. Furthermore, rapid development led to an inflation rate of 100% per year. Overwhelmed, the military leadership retreated and opened the door to a return to democracy in 1985. The new democratic government faced enormous obstacles: massive foreign debt and an inflation rate of 800% in 1987. In the 1990s, democratic presidents restored some stability to the economy, but the gap between rich and poor remained wide. Dissatisfaction with this gap helped to elect Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva in 2002. Lula, Brazil’s first left-wing president in four decades, has pursued a mission of making Brazil more independent in global trade. His challenges are to generate employment and decrease the foreign debt. Closure Question #1: What are some of the attributes of democracy? (List at least 3)

3. Standard of Living / Recession • Standard of Living – Level of Material Comfort which is judged by the amount of goods people have. Under the leadership of military dictators, though foreign investment and projects in the Amazon jungle increased, Brazil experienced a decline in its standard of living as the government froze wages and cut back on social programs. • Recession – Slowdown in the economy; By the early 1980s Brazil experienced a recession, leading the generals who governed the nation to open up the political system, allowing direct elections of local, state, and national officials. • In 1985, a new civilian president, Jose Sarney, took office. Sarney inherited a country in crisis because of foreign debt and inflation. He proved unable to solve the country’s problems and lost support. The next elected president fared even worse. He resigned because of corruption charges. In 1994 and again in 1998, Brazilians elected Fernando Henrique Cardoso, who achieved some success in tackling the nation’s economic and political problems. Although trained as a Marxist scholar, Cardoso became a strong advocate of free markets. One of his main concerns was the widening income gap in Brazil. He embarked on a program to promote economic reform. • In the presidential election of October 2002, Cardoso’s handpicked successor to lead his centrist coalition was Jose Serra. Serra faced two candidates who proposed a sharp break with Cardoso’s pro-business policies. These candidates included Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva, a candidate of the leftist Workers Party. An economic crisis hit many countries in South America, including Brazil, in 2002. Because of stalled economic growth, rising unemployment, and poverty, there was a backlash against free-market economic policies. This made the election of 2002 a close contest. Da Silva, the leftist candidate, won the hotly disputed election, defeating the ruling party candidate, Serra. Da Silva has proved a more moderate president than his supporters and opponents had expected. Although Brazil faces many challenges, it continues on the path of democracy. Closure Question #2: What have been some of the obstacles to democracy in Latin America? (At least 1 sentence)

4. Institutional Revolutionary Party After the Mexican Revolution in the 1910s, the PRI was the dominant political party in Mexico until the year 2000. Every six years, leaders of the PRI chose the party’s presidential candidate, who was then elected by the people. During the 1950s and 1960s, steady economic growth led to real gains in wages in Mexico. At the end of the 1960s, students began to protest Mexico’s one-party government system. On October 2, 1968, university students gathered in Mexico City to protest government policies. Police forces opened fire and killed hundreds. The next two presidents, Luis Echeverria and Jose Lopez Portillo, made political reforms and new political parties emerged. Greater freedom of debate in the press and universities was allowed. Carlos Salinas de Gortari sped up privatization to relieve the debt crisis. He also changed some restrictive trade regulations in order to attract more foreign investors. In 1992, de Gortari began working with the U.S. president and the Canadian prime minister to form the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). That agreement went into effect in 1994. NAFTA did not cure Mexico’s economic problems, however. The continuing debt crisis, rising unemployment, and corruption scandals increased dissatisfaction with the government. Support for the PRI dropped. In 2000, Vicente Fox defeated the PRI candidate for the presidency. Fox’s election ended more than seven decades of PRI rule. Fox’s successor, Felipe de Jesus Calderon, continued with plans to boost Mexico’s economic growth.

5. Closure Question #3: Compare and contrast the role of the military in the governments of Brazil, Mexico, and Argentina. (At least 2 sentences) • Mexico – From 1920 to 1934, Mexico elected several generals as president. However, these men did not rule as military dictators. They did create a ruling party – the National Revolutionary Party, which dominated Mexico under various names for the rest of the 20th century. From 1934 to 1940, President Lazaro Cardenas tried to improve life for peasants and workers. He carried out land reform and promoted labor rights. He nationalized the Mexican oil industry, kicking out foreign oil companies and creating a state-run oil industry. After Cardenas, however, a series of more conservative presidents turned away from reform. • Argentina – Argentina had struggled to establish a democracy. It was a major exporter of grain and beef. It was also an industrial nation with a large working class. In 1946, Argentine workers supported an army officer, Juan Peron, who won the presidency and then established a dictatorship. Peron did not rule alone. He received critical support from his wife, Eva – known as Evita to the millions of Argentines who idolized her. Together the Perons created a welfare state. The state offered social programs with broad popular appeal but limited freedoms. After Eva’s death in 1952, Peron’s popularity declined and his enemies – the military and the Catholic Church – moved against him. In 1955, the military ousted Peron and drove him into exile. For many years, the military essentially controlled Argentine politics. They established a brutal dictatorship and hunted down political opponents. For several years, torture and murder were everyday events. By the early 1980s, several thousand Argentines had simply disappeared, kidnapped by their own government.

6. Closure Assignment #1 • Answer the following questions based on what you have learned from Chapter 35, Section 1: • What are some of the attributes of democracy? (List at least 3) • What have been some of the obstacles to democracy in Latin America? (At least 1 sentence) • Compare and contrast the role of the military in the governments of Brazil, Mexico, and Argentina. (At least 2 sentences)

7. Closure Question #1: What were the main negative effects of the economic policies of European colonizers? (List at least 2 effects) • When the Europeans established colonial boundaries, they ignored existing ethnic or cultural divisions. New borders divided peoples of the same background or threw different – often rival – groups together. Because of this, a sense of national identity was difficult to develop. After independence, the old colonial boundaries became the borders of the newly independent states. As a result, ethnic and cultural conflicts remained. • Other problems had an economic basis. European powers had viewed colonies as sources of wealth for the home country. The colonial powers encouraged the export of one or two cash crops, such as coffee or rubber, rather than the production of a range of products to serve local needs. Europeans developed plantations and mines but few factories. Manufactured goods were imported from European countries. These policies left new African nations with unbalanced economies and a small middle class. Such economic problems lessened their chances to create democratic stability. • European rule also disrupted African family and community life. In some cases, colonial powers moved Africans, far from their families and villages to work in mines or on plantations. In addition, most newly independent nations still lacked a skilled, literate work force that could take on the task of building a new nation.

8. Federal System • A governmental system in which power is shared between state governments and a central authority. After winning its independence from Britain in 1960, Nigeria adopted a federal system. Three states were established, one for each of its three major ethnic groups: The Hausa-Fulani (Mostly Muslim), and the Yoruba and Igbo (Mostly Christians or Animists). • When Britain and France gave up their colonies, they left fragile governments in place. Soon problems threatened those governments. Rival ethnic groups often fought for power. Strong militaries became tools for ambitious leaders. In many cases, a military dictatorship replaced democracy. Nigeria, a former British colony, won its independence peacefully in 1960. Nigeria is Africa’s most populous country and one of its richest. However, the country was ethnically divided. This soon created problems that led to war. • The Hausa-Fulani, who did not trust the Igbo, launched an attack from the north. They persecuted and killed many Igbo. The survivors fled east. In 1967, the Eastern Region seceded from Nigeria, declaring itself the new nation of Biafra. The Nigerian government then went to war to reunite the country. The Igbo were badly outnumbered and outgunned. In 1970, Biafra surrendered. Nigeria was reunited, but perhaps more than a million Igbo died, most from starvation. After the war, Nigerians, returned to the process of nation-building. “When the war ended”, noted one officer, “it was like a referee blowing a whistle in a football game. People just put down their guns and went back to the business of living.” The Nigerian government did not punish the Igbo. It used federal money to rebuild the Igbo region. Closure Question #2: What do you think is the main problem that Nigeria faces in attempting to establish a democratic government? Why? (At least 1 sentence)

9. Martial Law • Temporary military rule; In Nigeria, although one group dominated each state, the states also had ethnic minorities. In the Western Region, non-Yoruba minorities began to resent Yoruba control. In 1963, they tried to break away and form their own region. This led to fighting. In January 1966, a group of army officers, most of them Igbo, seized power in the capital city of Lagos. These officers abolished the regional governments and declared martial law. • The military governed Nigeria for most of the 1970s. During this time, Nigerian leaders tried to create a more stable federal system, with a strong central government and a number of regional units. The government also tried to build a more modern economy, based on oil income. In 1979, the military handed power back to civilian rulers. Nigerians were cheered by the return of democracy. Some people, however, remained concerned about ethnic divisions in the nation. Nigerian democracy was short-lived. In 1983, the military overthrew the civilian government, charging it with corruption. A new military regime, dominated by the Hausa-Fulani, took charge. • In 1999, Nigerians elected their first civilian president, Olusegun Obasanjo, in nearly 20 years. In 2003, Obasanjo was reelected. Obasanjo was an ethnic Yoruba from southwest Nigeria. As a critic of Nigerian military regimes, he had spent three years in jail (1995-1998) under Sani Abacha. As a former general, Obasanjo had the support of the military. Obasanjo worked for a strong, unified Nigeria. He made some progress in his battle against corruption. He also attempted to draw the attention of the world to the need for debt relief for Nigera. Obasanjo saw debt relief as essential to the relief of hunger and the future of democracy in Africa. Closure Question #2: What do you think is the main problem that Nigeria faces in attempting to establish a democratic government? Why? (At least 1 sentence)

10. Dissidents • Government Opponents; In 1993, following the election Moshood Abiola as president of Nigeria, military officers declared the results invalid, and a dictator, General Sani Abacha, took control. General Abacha banned political activity and jailed dissidents. Upon Abacha’s death, in 1999, Nigerians elected their first civilian president in 20 years. Nigeria remains a democracy today. • In South Africa, racial conflict was the result of colonial rule. From its beginnings under Dutch and British control, South Africa was racially divided. A small white minority ruled a large black majority. In 1910, South Africa gained self-rule as a dominion of the British Empire. In 1931, it became an independent member of the British Commonwealth. Although South Africa had a constitutional government, the constitution gave whites power and denied the black majority its rights. In 1948, the Nationalist Party came to power in South Africa. This party promoted Afrikaner, or Dutch South African, nationalism. It also instituted a policy of apartheid, complete separation of the races. The minority government banned social contacts between whites and blacks. It established segregated schools, hospitals, and neighborhoods. • In 1959, the minority government set up reserves, called homelands, for the country’s major black groups. Blacks were forbidden to live in white areas unless they worked as servants or laborers for whites. The homelands policy was totally unbalanced. Although blacks made up about 75% of the population, the government set aside only 13% of the land for them. Whites kept the best land. The blacks of South Africa resisted the controls imposed by the white minority. In 1912, they formed the African National Congress (ANC) to fight for their rights. The ANC organized strikes and boycotts to protest racist policies. The government banned the ANC and imprisoned many of its members. One was ANC leader Nelson Mandela.

11. Apartheid / Nelson Mandela Apartheid - Located on the southernmost tip of Africa, whites dominated the political system in South Africa from the 1800s to the 1970s, establishing a system of racial segregation known as apartheid (“apartness”). In the 1960s Black Africans began to protest against apartheid, but were brutally repressed by the white police officers. Nelson Mandela – Leader of civil rights protests in South Africa during the 1960s, Mandela spent 26 years in prison. He was released from prison in 1990 and, in 1994, became South Africa’s first black president. In South Africa, where white dominated the political system, the process was more complicated. Blacks began organizing against white rule and formed the African National Congress (ANC) in 1912. Its goal was economic and political reform. The ANC’s efforts, however, met with little success. At the same time, by the 1950s, South African whites (descendants of the Dutch, known as Afrikaners) had strengthened the laws separating whites and blacks. The result was a system of racial segregation known as apartheid. Blacks began demonstrating against these laws. The white government brutally repressed the demonstrators. In 1960 police opened fire on people who were leading a peaceful march in Sharpeville, killing 69 people, two-thirds of whom were shot in the back. After the arrest of ANC leader Nelson Mandela in 1962, members of the ANC called for armed resistance to the white government. The African states that achieved independence in the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s still faced many problems. The leaders of these states, as well as their citizens, dreamed of stable governments and economic prosperity. Many of these dreams have yet to be realized. Most leaders of the newly independent states came from the urban middle class. They had studied in Europe or the United States and knew European languages. They believed in using the Western democratic model in Africa.

12. Closure Question #3: What are some of the important issues facing South Africa today? Choose one and describe it in your own words. (At least 1 sentence) • In 1999, ANC official Thabo Mbeki won election as president in a peaceful transition of power. As Mbeki assumed office, he faced a number of serious challenges. These include high crime rates – South Africa’s rape and murder rates were among the highest in the world. Unemployment stood at about 40% among South Africa’s blacks, and about 60% lived below the poverty level. In addition, an economic downturn discouraged foreign investment. • Mbeki promoted a free-market economic policy to repair South Africa’s infrastructure and to encourage foreign investors. In 2002, South Africa was engaged in negotiations to establish free-trade agreements with a number of countries around the world, including those of the European Union, as well as Japan, Canada, and the United States. This was an attempt at opening the South African economy to foreign competition and investment, and promoting growth and employment. • One of the biggest problems facing South Africa was the AIDS epidemic. Some estimates concluded that 6 million South Africans were likely to die of AIDS by 2010. Mbeki disputed that AIDS was caused by HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus). His opinion put South Africa at odds with the scientific consensus throughout the world. The New York Times stated that Mbeki was in danger of undermining “all his good work with his stance on AIDS.”

13. Closure Assignment #2 • Answer the following questions based on what you have learned from Chapter 35, Section 2: • What were the main negative effects of the economic policies of European colonizers? (List at least 2 effects) • What do you think is the main problem that Nigeria faces in attempting to establish a democratic government? Why? (At least 1 sentence) • What are some of the important issues facing South Africa today? Chose one and describe it in your own words. (At least 1 sentence)

14. Politburo / Mikhail Gorbachev • Politburo – The ruling committee of the Communist Party in the Soviet Union. Under the leadership of Leonid Brezhnev in the 1970s the Politburo crushed all political disagreement. Censors decided what writers could publish and restricted freedom of speech and worship. • Mikhail Gorbachev- Reformer who, in 1985, became the leader of the Soviet Union. Gorbachev’s restructuring of the Soviet economy and government combined with his decision to end Soviet support of foreign Communist regimes led to the end of the Cold War in 1989 and the break-up of the Soviet Union in 1991. • After World War II, the Soviet Union and the United States engaged in a Cold War. Each tried to increase its worldwide influence. The Soviet Union extended its power over much of Eastern Europe. By the 1960s, it appeared that communism was permanently established in the region. During the 1960s and 1970s, the Soviet Union’s Communist leadership kept tight control over the Soviet people. But big changes, including democratic reforms, were on the horizon. The Soviet people welcomed Gorbachev’s election. At 54, he was the youngest Soviet leader since Stalin. Gorbachev was only a child during Stalin’s ruthless purge of independent-minded party members. Unlike other Soviet leaders, Gorbachev decided to pursue new ideas.

15. Closure Question #1: How did Gorbachev’s reforms help to move the Soviet Union toward democracy? (At least 1 sentence) Glasnost / Perestroika • Glasnost – Russian for “New Openness”; Gorbachev met with Reagan 4 times from 1985 to 1989, visiting sites in both countries “like old friends”. Both sides agreed to reduce nuclear arms production, and Gorbachev gradually allowed greater freedoms of speech and press within the Soviet Union. • Perestroika – “Restructuring”; Gorbachev’s reform policy for the Soviet economy and government. Gorbachev established a market economy which allowed some businesses to be privately owned and set up a Soviet parliament and presidency with officials to be elected by the people in 1989. • The Soviet Union included 92 ethnic groups and 112 different languages. As Gorbachev released the iron grip of the Communist Party, centered in Moscow, old ethnic tensions came to the fore. Nationalist movements began. In 1989 and 1990, calls fro independence came first in Soviet Georgia, and then in Latvia, Estonia, Moldavia, Uzbekistan, Azerbaijan, and Lithuania. The conservative leaders of the traditional Soviet institutions – the army, government, KGB, and military industries – were worried. The breakup of the Soviet Union would end their privileges. On August 19, 1991, a group of these conservative leaders arrested Gorbachev and tried to seize power. The attempt failed, however, when Boris Yeltsin, president of the Russian Republic, and thousands of Russians bravely resisted the rebel forces in Moscow. • The Soviet republics now moved for complete independence. Ukraine voted fro Independence on December 1, 1991. A week later, the leaders of Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus announced that the Soviet Union had “ceased to exist.” Gorbachev resigned on December 25, 1991. He turned over his responsibilities as commander in chief to Boris Yeltsin, the new president of Russia. By the end of 1991, one of the largest empires in world history had ended.

16. Boris Yeltsin Boris Yeltsin – First president of the Russian Republic following the downfall of the Soviet Union (1991-1999); Yeltsin attempted to transition Russia’s economy from communism to full free market capitalism while keeping rebellious ethnic groups, such as those in Chechnya, from seceding from the country. Russia defaulted on billions of dollars in debts in 1998, leading Yeltsin to resign as President in 1999, handing power to Vladimir Putin. Boris Yeltsin was committed to introducing a free market economy as quickly as possible, but the transition was not easy. Economic hardships and social disarray were made worse by a dramatic rise in organized crime. Another problem Yetlsin faced was in Chechnya, a province in the south that wanted to secede from Russia and become independent. Yeltsin used brutal force against the Chechens to keep the province as part of Russia. Yeltsin also dealt with former Soviet states like Poland, Hungary, and the Czech Republic who wanted to join NATO. Yeltsin opposed their wishes. However, in the 1990s these countries eventually succeeded in joining NATO. At the end of 1999, Yeltsin resigned and was replaced by Vladimir Putin, who was elected president in 2000. Putin, a former KGB officer, was widely seen as someone who wanted to keep a tight rein on government power. In July 2001, Putin launched reforms to boost growth and budget revenues. The reforms included the free sale and purchase of land and tax cuts. Putin has also applied for Russia’s admission to the World Trade Organization and has worked out a special partnership with the European Union. In spite of these changes, the business climate remains somewhat uncertain, and this has stifled foreign investment.

17. Closure Question #2: In what ways can the breakup of the Soviet Union be compared to that of the Roman Empire and the Han dynasty? (At least 1 sentence) CIS • A loose federation of former Soviet territories; In 1991, following a failed coup by Soviet military leaders to regain control of the country, Boris Yeltsin met with leaders 15 republics which had declared their independence from the Soviet Union. These nations formed the CIS, signaling the death of the Soviet Union. • Since Putin’s reforms, Russia has experienced a budget surplus and a growing economy. Russia can attribute a large part of its economic growth to its oil and gas exports. The country has an estimated 6% of the world’s oil deposits and about 30% of the world’s natural gas deposits. In fact, Russia’s energy wealth and control over export pipelines have made the country quite powerful. Increasingly, Russia has used its supplies of oil and gas as a political lever to wield power over former Soviet states and to influence world energy prices. For example, in 2006, Russia raised gas prices by about 100% for Ukraine, whose democratic government it opposed. A trans-Siberian oil pipeline, planned for 2008, will make Asia more dependent on Russian oil. Even though it has made economic gains, Russia still faces some challenges. Rising alcoholism, criminal activities, and the decline of the traditional family system give Russians concern. Putin has tried to deal with these problems by centralizing his control over the government. Some observers have raised concerns that Putin grants even more influence to government forces that desire to reassert state control over the economy. • Other challenges for Russia are the ongoing turmoil in Chechnya and terrorism. In 2002 Chechen terrorists took about 600 Russians hostage in a Moscow theater. Between 2002 and 2004, terrorist attacks in Russia killed an estimated 500 people. Chechen rebels seized a school in the town of Beslan in 2004. When Russian troops moved in to end the siege, more than 300 died. Many were young schoolchildren. Although Russian troops killed the Chechen leader in 2006, the remaining insurgents have continued terrorist attacks in the North Caucasus region. Putin has refused to negotiate with Chechen rebels.

18. “SHOCK THERAPY” An abrupt shift to free-market economics which took place in Russia under the leadership of Boris Yeltsin in the early 1990s. Yeltsin lowered trade barriers, removed price controls, and ended subsidies to state-owned industries. As a result of these changes, between 1992 and 1994 the inflation rate in Russia averaged 800%, factories that had been sponsored by the communist government were forced to shut down, and hundreds of thousands of people lost their jobs. Boris Yeltsin was raised in poverty. For 10 years, his family had lived in a single room. As a youth, Yeltsin earned good grades but behaved badly. Mikhail Gorbachev named him party boss and mayor of Moscow in 1985. Yeltsin’s outspokenness got him into trouble. At one meeting, he launched into a bitter speech criticizing conservatives for working against perestroika. Gorbachev fired him for the sake of party unity. Yeltsin made a dramatic comeback and won a seat in parliament in 1989. Parliament elected him president of Russia in 1990 and voters reelected him in 1991. Due at least in part to his failing health (heart problems), Yeltsin resigned in 1999. As president of the large Russian Federation, Boris Yeltsin was the most powerful man in Eastern Europe. He faced many problems, including an ailing economy, tough political opposition, and an unpopular war. Yeltsin announced his retirement on New Year’s Eve of 2000. During his speech to the Russian people, he expressed remorse for the hardship his polices had caused.

19. Solidarity / Lech Walesa Lech Walesa – Organizer and leader of the Polish national trade union Solidarity in 1980; Walesa gained the support of workers and the Roman Catholic church, and even when he was arrested his movement continued. In 1990, Walesa was elected President of democratic Poland. Workers’ protests led to demands for change in Poland. In 1980, a worker named Lech Walesa organized Solidarity, a national trade union. Solidarity gained the support of the workers and of the Roman Catholic Church, which was under the leadership of Pope John Paul II, the first Polish pope. Even when Walesa was arrested, the movement continued. Finally, in 1988, the Polish regime agreed to free parliamentary elections – the first free elections in Eastern Europe in 40 years. A new government was elected, ending 45 years of Communist rule. In December 1990, Walesa was chosen as president. Poland’s new path, however, was not easy. Rapid free-market reforms led to severe unemployment and popular discontent. Aleksander Kwasniewski, who succeeded Walesa, continued Poland’s move toward an increasingly prosperous free-market economy. Current president Lech Kaczynski is emphasizing the need to combine modernization with tradition. In 1976, Wałęsa lost his job in Gdańsk Shipyard. In June 1978, he joined the illegal underground Free Trade Unions of the Coast (Wolne Związki Zawodowe Wybrzeża), organized by Bogdan Borusewicz, Andrzej Gwiazda, Krzysztof Wyszkowski, Lech Kaczyński, Anna Walentynowicz, Antoni Sokołowski, and others. On 14 August 1980, after the beginning of an occupational strike in the Lenin Shipyard of Gdańsk, Wałęsa became the leader of this strike. The strike was spontaneously followed by similar strikes, first in Gdańsk, and then across Poland. In September that year, the Communist government signed an agreement with the Strike Coordination Committee to allow legal organization, but not actual free trade unions. The Strike Coordination Committee legalized itself into National Coordination Committee of Solidarność (Solidarity) Free Trade Union, and Wałęsa was chosen as a chairman of this Committee. Wałęsa kept this position until 13 December 1981, when he was arrested. General Wojciech Jaruzelski declared a state of martial law on 13 December. Wałęsa was incarcerated for 11 months in eastern Poland in several villages (Chylice, Otwock and Arłamów near the Soviet border) until 14 November 1982.

20. Reunification October 3, 1990 – Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1989, the communist government of East Germany rapidly weakened and opened its western border. Thousands of East Germans fled to West Germany or protested against Communism, finally going so far as to tear down parts of the Berlin Wall. With the complete collapse of the East Germany government, the government of West Germany announced the unification of the country to form one Germany. Erich Honecker, head of the Communist Party in East Germany, ruled harshly. While many East Germans fled their country, others led mass demonstrations against the regime in 1989. Before the Berlin Wall was built, thousands of East Berliners fled to the West for the opportunities it had to offer. The East German government built the Berlin Wall in 1961 to stem this economic loss. The wall separated family members and friends for decades, and it became a symbol of Communist tyranny. On November 9, 1989, in response to mass protests, East Germany’s Communist rulers opened the wall’s gates. Soon after crowds began to climb the wall and to tear it down. When Germany was reunified in 1990, Chancellor Helmut Kohl promised a transformation of the East that would take place within four years. However, it became apparent that rebuilding the East German economy could take many decades and have a high cost. Despite these challenges, all Germans now enjoy the same political freedoms as one nation. Communist leader Nicolae Ceausescu ruled Romania with an iron grip, using secret police to crush all dissent. Nonetheless, opposition grew. His economic policies led to a sharp drop in living standards. Food shortages caused rationing. His bulldozing of entire villages to further urbanization plans angered the Romanian people. One incident ignited the flames of revolution. In December 1989, the secret police murdered thousands of people who were peacefully demonstrating. Finally, the army refused to support any more repression. Ceausescu and his wife were captured and executed. A new government was quickly formed. Former Communists dominated the government until 1996. The current president, Traian Basescu, leads a country that is just beginning to show economic growth and the rise of a middle class. Closure Question #3: Why was the collapse of communism in the Soviet Union a turning point in history? (At least 1 sentence)

21. Ethnic Cleansing • The practice of using violence and forced emigration to remove a specific group of people from a region; In 1992, after the breakup of communist Yugoslavia, the Serbian military implemented ethnic cleansing against Bosnian Muslims living in Serb-held lands. • Ethnic conflict plagued Yugoslavia. This country, formed after World War I, had eight major ethnic groups – Serbs, Croats, Muslims, Slovenes, Macedonians, Albanians, Hungarians, and Montenegrins. Ethnic and religious differences dating back centuries caused these groups to view one another with suspicion. After World War II, Yugoslavia became a federation of six republics. Each republic had a mixed population. Josip Tito, who led Yugoslavia from 1945 to 1980, held the country together. After Tito’s death, ethnic resentments boiled over. Serbian leader Solobodan Milosevic asserted leadership over Yugoslavia. Many Serbs opposed Milosevic and his policies and fled the country. • Two republics, Slovenia and Croatia, declared independence. In June 1991, the Serbian-led Yugoslav army invaded both republics. After months of bloody fighting, both republics freed themselves from Serbian rule. Early in 1992, Bosnia-Herzegovina joined Slovenia and Croatia in declaring independence. In April, Serbia and Montenegro formed a new Yugoslavia.) Bosnia’s population included Muslims (44%), Serbs (31%), and Croats (17%). While Bosnia’s Muslims and Croats backed independence, Bosnian Serbs strongly opposed it. Supported by Serbia, the Bosnian Serbs launched a war in March 1992.By 1995 the Serbian military controlled 70% of Bosnia. In December of that year, leaders of the three factions involved in the war signed a UN- and U.S.-brokered peace treaty. In September 1996, Bosnians elected a three-person presidency, one leader from each ethnic group. By 2001, Bosnia and Herzegovina began to stand on its own without as much need for supervision by the international community.

22. Closure Assignment #3 • Answer the following questions based on what you have learned from Chapter 35, Section 3: • How did Gorbachev’s reforms help to move the Soviet Union toward democracy? (At least 1 sentence) • In what ways can the breakup of the Soviet Union be compared to that of the Roman Empire and the Han dynasty? (At least 1 sentence) • Why was the collapse of communism in the Soviet Union a turning point in history? (At least 1 sentence)

23. Zhou Enlai • Chinese premier and chief adviser to Mao Zedong from 1949 to 1976. Worried by China’s isolation from the world, Zhou began to send out signals that he was willing to form ties to the West. In 1971 he startled the world by inviting an American table-tennis team to tour China, beginning a new era in Chinese-American relations. In 1979, the United States and China established diplomatic relations. • The trend toward democracy around the world also affected China to a limited degree. A political reform movement arose in the late 1980s. It built on economic reforms begun earlier in the decade. However, although the leadership of the Communist Party in China generally supported economic reform, it opposed political reform. China’s Communist government clamped down on the political reformers. At the same time, it maintained a firm grip on power in the country. After the Communists came to power in China in 1949, Mao Zedong set out to transform China. Mao believed that peasant equality, revolutionary spirit, and hard work were all that was needed to improve the Chinese economy. • However, lack of modern technology damaged Chinese efforts to increase agricultural and industrial output. In addition, Mao’s policies stifled economic growth. He eliminated incentives for higher production. He tried to replace family life with life in the communes. These policies took away peasants’ motive to work for the good of themselves and their families. Facing economic disaster, some Chinese Communists talked of modernizing the economy. Accusing them of “taking the capitalist road”, Mao began the Cultural Revolution in 1966 to cleanse China of antirevolutionary influences. Instead of saving radical communism, however, the Cultural Revolution turned many people against it.

24. Deng Xiaoping Closure Question #1: How have China’s policies changed since Mao’s rule? (At least 1 sentence) Following the deaths of Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai in 1976, Deng Xiaoping led a group of practical-minded reformers to seize power and end Mao’s cultural revolution. Deng called for the Four Modernizations. Both Mao and Zhou died in 1976. Shortly afterward, moderates took control of the Communist Party. They jailed several of the radicals who had led the Cultural Revolution. By 1980, Deng Xiaoping had emerged as the most powerful leader in China. He was the last of the “old revolutionaries” who had ruled China since 1949. Although a lifelong Communist, Deng boldly supported moderate economic policies. Unlike Mao, he was willing to use capitalist ideas to help China’s economy. He embraced a set of goals known as the Four Modernizations. These called for progress in agriculture, industry, defense, and science and technology. Deng launched an ambitious program of economic reforms. Despite these achievements, many people complained that Deng Xiaoping’s program had not achieved a fifth modernization – democracy. People could not directly criticize the Communist Party. Those who called for democracy were often sentenced to long terms in prison. The problem began to intensify in the late 1980s. More Chinese began to study abroad, and they learned more about the West. That information reached more educated people inside the country. As the economy prospered, students and other groups believed that they could ask for better living conditions and greater freedom. Students, in particular, wanted more freedom to choose jobs after they graduated. In the late 1980s, rising inflation led to growing discontent among salaried workers, especially in the cities. Corruption and special treatment for officials and party members led to increasing criticism as well. In May 1989, student protesters called for an end to the corruption and demanded the resignation of China’s aging Communist Party leaders.

25. Four Modernizations • New policies in industry, agriculture, technology, and national defense. • Agriculture: Deng eliminated Mao’s communes and leased the land to individual farmers. Food production increased by 50% from 1978 to 1984. • Industry: The government permitted private businesses to operate and welcomed foreign investment. • Technology: Thousands of Chinese students were sent to foreign nations to study science in order to bring new inventions back to China. • National Defense: Hundreds of thousands of young men swelled the ranks of the military while advanced military technology strengthened fighting ability. • Deng Xiaoping’s Four Modernizations aimed to move China to a more market-driven economy, but Deng remained committed to a Communist political system. In 1978 the government had briefly allowed people to express their ideas on a wall in Beijing, but when the message called for more political freedom, the “Democracy Wall” was torn down. Deng said that freedom like free speech and open debate “had never played a positive role in China.” • Deng’s economic policies produced striking changes in Chinese life. As incomes increased, people began to buy appliance and televisions. Chinese youths now wore stylish clothes and listened to Western music. Gleaming hotels filled with foreign tourists symbolized China’s new policy of openness. Deng’s economic reforms produced a number of unexpected problems. As living standards improved, the gap between the rich and poor widened. Increasingly, the public believed that party officials profited from their positions.

26. Tiananmen Square Closure Question #2: Has there been greater progress in political or economic reform in China? (At least 1 sentence) Located in the Chinese capital of Beijing, in May 1989 student protesters led massive demonstrations against the corruption in the Communist Party. In response, Deng Xiaoping ordered tanks and troops into the area, killing between 500 and 2,000 demonstrators and ending any chance of democracy in China. Throughout the 1990s, China’s human rights violations and its determination to unify with Taiwan strained its relationship wit the West. China’s increasing military power has also created an international concern. However, China still maintains diplomatic relations with the West. From the start, the Communist Party wanted to create a new kind of citizen, one who would give the utmost for the good of all China. In Mao’s words, the people “should be resolute, fear no sacrifice, and surmount every difficulty to win victory.” During the 1950s and 1960s, the Chinese government made some basic changes. Women were now allowed to take part in politics and had equal martial rights – a dramatic shift for the Chinese. Mao feared that loyalty to the family would interfere with loyalty to the state. During the Cultural Revolution, for example, children were encouraged to report negative comments their parents made about the government. After Mao’s death, family traditions returned. People now had more freedom in everyday matters and had better living conditions. Married couples who had been given patriotic names chose more elegant names for their own children. Clothing choices were no longer restricted to a baggy “Mao suit.” Today, young Chinese people wear jeans, sneakers, and sweatsuits. Mao’s successors have followed one of his goals to the present day – the effort to control population growth. Criticized for being oppressive, the policy has been more successful in cities than it has in rural areas.

27. Hong Kong • A thriving business center and British colony on the southeastern coast of China; In 1997, Great Britain handed Hong Kong over to China, ending 155 years of colonial rule. As part of the transfer, China promised to respect Hong Kong’s economic system and political liberties for 50 years. • The brutal repression of the prodemocracy movement left Deng firmly in control of China. During the final years of his life, Deng continued his program of economic reforms. Although Deng moved out of the limelight in 1995, he remained China’s leader. In February 1997, after a long illness, Deng died. Communist Party General Secretary Jiang Zemin assumed the presidency. Many questions arose after Deng’s death. What kind of leader would Jiang be? Would he be able to hold on to power and ensure political stability? A highly intelligent and educated man, Jiang had served as mayor of Shanghai. He was considered skilled, flexible, and practical. However, he had no military experience. Therefore, Jiang had few allies among the generals. He also faced challenges from rivals, including hard-line officials who favored a shift away from Deng’s economic policies. • Other questions following Deng’s death had to do with China’s poor human rights record, its occupation of Tibet, and relations with the United States. During the 1990s, the United States pressured China to release political prisoners and ensure basic rights for political opponents. China remained hostile to such pressure. Its government continued to repress the prodemocracy movement. Nevertheless, the desire for freedom still ran through Chinese society. If China remained economically open but politically closed, tensions seemed bound to surface. Closure Question #3: Judging from what you have learned about the Chinese government, do you think Hong Kong will keep its freedom under Chinese rule? Explain.

28. Closure Assignment #4 • Answer the following questions based on what you have learned from Chapter 35, Section 5: • How have China’s policies changed since Mao’s rule? (At least 1 sentence) • Has there been greater progress in political or economic reform in China? (At least 1 sentence) • Judging from what you have learned about the Chinese government, do you think Hong Kong will keep its freedom under Chinese rule? Explain.

29. International Space Station • Project sponsored by the United States, Russia, and 14 other nations; Since 1998, U.S. and Russian spacecraft have transported sections of the ISS to be assembled in space. By the time it was completed in 2010, the ISS covered an area larger than a football field and currently houses a crew of six. Since October 2000, small crews have been working aboard the ISS, conducting hundreds of experiments. • In 1972, years before the end of the Cold War, the United States and Soviet space programs began work on a cooperative project – the docking of U.S. and Soviet spacecraft in orbit. This goal was achieved on July 17th, 1975, when spacecraft from the two countries docked some 140 miles above Earth. Television viewers across the globe watched as the hatch between the space vehicles opened and crews from Earth’s fiercest rival countries greeted each other. This first cooperative venture in space between te United States and the Soviet Union was an isolated event. People from different countries, however, continued to work together to explore space. The Soviets were the first to send an international crew into space. The crew of Soyuz 28, which orbited Earth in 1978, included a Czech cosmonaut. • Since the mid-1980s, crews on United States space shuttle flights have included astronauts from Saudi Arabia, France, Germany, Canada, Italy, Japan, Israel, and Mexico. (Space shuttles are larger than other spacecraft and are reusable.) Shuttle missions put crews in orbit around Earth to accomplish a variety of scientific and technological tasks. The space shuttle is being used in the most ambitious cooperative space venture in human history; the construction of the ISS. Closure Question #1: Why do you think that space exploration became an arena for cooperation between the Soviet Union and the United States?

30. International Space Station

31. Internet • Invented in the 1980s, the internet has made communication and access to information almost instantaneous, transforming commerce, education, research, and entertainment. • At first, personal computers were a novelty item, used mainly by hobbyists. But by the 1980s, computers were transforming industries, research labs, and businesses. Personal computers could perform many different tasks but were small and simple enough for the average person to use. The technology that created them eventually spread to many other industries. Video games, cellular telephones, and other electronics all depended on microchips and microprocessors. Entrepreneurs played a large role in accelerating the use of personal computers. Steve Job’s Apple Computers and Bill Gates’ Microsoft made computers and software affordable for millions of Americans. Jeff Bezos’s Amazon.com ushered in buying and selling products by computer. Like Andrew Carnegie and John D. Rockefeller a century before, these men amassed great fortunes by pioneering new technologies. • Late in the 20th century, commentators began to describe their times as the “information age.” Access to information, they claimed, was access to power. Computers, cellphones, e-mails, and instant messaging became the tools of the information age. Entrepreneurs who could control these tools became wealthy – and powerful. For example, media executives who decide what gets on television can exert influence on political elections and controversial topics. But computer and communication technologies also have a democratic leveling effect. Anyone with access to a computer can acquire information that was once available only to a few, well-connected leaders. Closure Question #2: How do you think the Internet will affect the world of work in the future? (At least 1 sentence)

32. Genetic Engineering • Process through which scientists are able to introduce new genes into an organism to give that organism new traits. Genes are hereditary units that cause specific traits, such as eye color, in every living organism. Technology allows scientists to isolate and examine individual genes that are responsible for different traits. • Advances with computers and communications networks have transformed not only the ways people work but lifestyles as well. Technological progress in the sciences, medicine, and agriculture has improved the quality of the lives of millions of people. Before World War II, surgeons seldom performed operations on sensitive areas such as the eye or the brain. However, in the 1960s and 1970s, new technologies, such as more powerful microscopes, the laser, and ultrasound were developed. Many of these technologies advanced surgical techniques. • Advances in medical imaging also helped to improve health care. Using data provided by CAT scans and MRI techniques, doctors can build three-dimensional images of different organs or regions of the body. Doctors use these images to diagnose injuries, detect tumors, or collect other medical information. In the 1980s, genetics, the study of heredity through research on genes, became a fast-growing field of science.

33. Cloning • The creation of identical copies of DNA, the chemical chains of genes that determine heredity. Cloning allows scientists to reproduce both plants and animals that are identical to existing plants and animals. The application of genetic research to everyday life has led to many breakthroughs, especially in agriculture. • Unmanned space probes have been used to study the farther reaches of the solar system. The Soviet Venera spacecraft in the 1970s and the U.S. probe Magellan in 1990 provided in-depth information about Venus. On a 12-year journey that began in 1977, the U.S. Voyager 2 sent dazzling pictures of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune back to Earth. Both the United States and the Soviet Union have shown particular interest in the planet Mars. The United States probe Pathfinder, which landed on Mars in 1997, provided spectacular results. • In 1990, the U.S. space agency, N.A.S.A. and the European space agency, E.S.A., worked together to develop and launch the Hubble Space Telescope. Nearly twenty years later, the orbiting telescope continues to observe and send back images of objects in the most remote regions of the universe. Any astronomer in the world can submit a research request, and all data is released to the public. Closure Question #3: Is there a limit to how far cloning should go? Why or why not? (At least 1 sentence)

34. Green Revolution The development of new strains of rice, corn, and other grains that produce greater amounts of food; Huge quantities of chemical fertilizers are used to grow these new strains, and pesticides are used to keep insects from destroying the crops. Concern about the amount of chemicals used in producing food has led to a counter-revolution of organic farming, which uses no chemicals. Concern about the side effects of modern medicines has also led to a dramatic growth in the holistic health-care movement that employs natural methods of healing such as herbal remedies, massage therapy, and acupuncture. Certain infectious diseases have raised global concerns in recent decades. One devastating disease is AIDS. Nearly 3 million people died of AIDS in 2006 and millions live with HIV. Promoted as the technological solution to feeding the world’s population, huge quantities of chemical fertilizers are needed to grow the new strains. Many farmers cannot afford the fertilizers. In addition, the new crops have been subject to insects. The pesticides used to control the insects create environmental problems. The growing concern with chemical pesticides in food has led to a dramatic increase in the practice of organic farming. Organic farming rejects the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, growth hormones, and livestock feed additives. Its goal is to maintain a healthy and sustainable environment.

35. Closure Assignment #5 • Answer the following questions based on what you have learned from Chapter 36, Section 1: • Why do you think that space exploration became an arena for cooperation between the Soviet Union and the United States? • How do you think the Internet will affect the world of work in the future? (At least 1 sentence) • Is there a limit to how far cloning should go? Why or why not? (At least 1 sentence)

36. Developed Nations • Nations with industrialization, transportation, and business facilities for advanced production of manufactured goods. In modern times developed nations, such as the United States, Japan, and most of Western Europe, have lost manufacturing jobs to emerging nations. • In both Asia and the Western world, an explosion in scientific knowledge prompted great progress that quickly led to new industries. A prime example was plastics. In the 1950s, a process to develop plastics from petroleum at low pressures and low temperatures was perfected. Within a few years, industries made a host of products easily and cheaply out of plastics. Other technological advances have also changed industrial processes, lowered costs, and increased the quality or the speed of production. For example, robotic arms on automobile assembly lines made possible the fast and safe manufacture of high-quality cars. • Technological advances in manufacturing reduced the need for factory workers. But in other areas o the economy, new demands were emerging. Computerization and communications advances changed the processing of information. By the 1980s, people could transmit information quickly and cheaply. Information industries such as financial services, insurance, market research, and communications services boomed. Those industries depended on “knowledge workers”, or people whose jobs focus on working with information. Closure Question #1: In what ways has technology changed the workplace of people across the world?

37. Emerging Nations • Nations that are in the process of becoming industrialized. Emerging nations became prime locations for new manufacturing operations. Some economists believe these areas were chosen because they had many eager workers whose skills fit manufacturing-type jobs and who would work for less money than those in developed nations. • In recent years, there has been considerable debate on the impact of globalization. Supporters suggest that open, competitive markets and the free flow of goods, services, technology, and investments benefit all nations. Globalization, they argue, has resulted in a dramatic increase in the standard of living across the world. Even some opponents agree that practically all nations have seen some benefit from globalization. However, they note that the developed nations have benefited the most. Other opponents charge that globalization has been a disaster for the poorest countries. They suggest that many poor countries are worse off today than they were in the past. They argue that investment practices, trade agreements, and aid packages must be designed to protect the interests of the poorest nations. Closure Question #1: In what ways has technology changed the workplace of people across the world?

38. World Population

39. Global Economy • All the financial interactions – among people, businesses, and governments – that cross international borders. In the second half of the 1800s the global economy began to take shape, as huge cargo ships could inexpensively carry enormous supplies of fuels and other goods from one part of the world to another. • Another reflection of the global economy is the multinational corporation (a company that has divisions in more than two countries). Prominent examples of multinational corporations include Siemens, IBM, Toyota, and the Sony Corporation. The growing number of multinational corporations that do business around the world increasingly tie one country to another in a global economy. For example, an economic downturn in the United States can create stagnant conditions in Europe and Asia. We live in an interdependent world. • Global trade is another important component of the global economy. Over the years, many nations joined in talks to make trade between countries free and easy. These talks led to General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (GATT). In 1995, the nations that had signed the GATT treaties agreed to create the World Trade Organization. The WTO has been criticized for ignoring environmental and health concerns and for leaving out small and developing countries. Still, it is the only global organization that deals with rules of trade among nations. Closure Question #1: In what ways has technology changed the workplace of people across the world?

40. Globalization

41. Free Trade • The elimination of trade barriers, such as tariffs, among nations. Free trade is a major goal of globalization. As early as 1947, nations began discussing ways to open trade. The result of these discussions was the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. (GATT) • Companies that operate in a number of different countries are called multinational or transnational corporations. U.S. companies such as Exxon Mobil, General Motors, and Ford; European companies such as BP, DaimlerChrysler, and Royal Dutch/Shell; and Japanese companies such as Toyota, Mitsubishi, and Mitsui all became multinational giants. All of these companies have established manufacturing plants, offices, or stores in many countries. For their manufacturing plants, they select spots where the raw materials or labor are cheapest. This enables them to produce components of their products on different continents. They ship the various components to another location to be assembled. This level of economic integration allows such companies to view the whole world as the market for their goods. Goods or services are distributed throughout the world as if there were not national boundaries. • Opening up the world’s markets to trade is a key aspect of globalization. Over the years, several meetings among the nations that signed the GATT have brought about a general lowering of protective tariffs and considerable expansion of free trade. Since 1995, the World Trade Organization (WTO) has overseen the GATT to ensure that trade among nations flows as smoothly and freely as possible. A European organization set up in 1951 promoted tariff-free trade among member countries. This experiment in economic cooperation was so successful that six years later, a new organization, the European Economic Community (EEC), was formed. Over time, most of the other Western European countries joined the organization, which has been known as the European Union (EU) since 1992. Closure Question #2: Why might some nations favor imposing tariffs on the import of certain products?

42. World Bank Closure Question #2: Why might some nations favor imposing tariffs on the import of certain products? A group of five international organizations which provide grants, loans, and advice for economic development in developing countries. The World Bank’s stated goal is “a world free of poverty”. Today about 770 million adults – one-fifth of the world’s population – lack basic reading and writing skills. This statistic represents a shocking waste of human potential. To combat this problem, the United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) coordinates the efforts of many organizations participating in its Education for All program. The program’s goal is to increase global literacy by 50% by 2015. The United Nations sees literacy as essential to ending poverty, slowing population growth, achieving gender equality, and ensuring economic development. Literacy provides access to education, which contributes to a more productive workforce and to fuller participation in today’s world.

43. World Bank

44. International Monetary Fund Founded in 1945 to oversee the global financial system, today the IMF watches exchange rates and offers financial and technical assistance in 184 countries worldwide. Both the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund have been criticized for forcing inappropriate Western economic practices on non-Western nations. Critics also argue that World Bank and IMF policies only aggravate the poverty and debt of developing nations. Groups of nations have joined together to form trading blocs. By 2004, the European Union included 25 member states and is the world’s largest single trading entity. The EU has a single internal market and a common currency (the euro.) Elsewhere, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) created a free trade area for Canada, the United States, and Mexico. The Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) agreement has tried to do the same among nations that border the Pacific Ocean.

45. World Trade Organization Made up of more than 140 member nations, the WTO arranges trade agreements and settles trade disputes worldwide. Another reflection of the global economy is the multinational corporation (a company that has divisions in more than two countries). Prominent examples of multinational corporations include Siemens, IBM, Toyota, and the Sony Corporation. The growing number of multinational corporations that do business around the world increasingly tie one country to another in a global economy. For example, an economic downturn in the United States can create stagnant conditions in Europe and Asia. We live in an interdependent world. Global trade is another important component of the global economy. Over the years, many nations joined in talks to make trade between countries free and easy. These talks led to General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (GATT). In 1995, the nations that had signed the GATT treaties agreed to create the World Trade Organization. The WTO has been criticized for ignoring environmental and health concerns and for leaving out small and developing countries. Still, it is the only global organization that deals with rules of trade among nations.

46. Ozone Layer / “Global Warming” • Ozone Layer – Earth’s main protection against the Sun’s damaging ultraviolet rays; The release of chemicals called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) has destroyed ozone in Earth’s upper atmosphere. The increase in ultraviolet radiation reaching earth’s surface has caused skin cancer rates to rise in many parts of the world and may result in damage to plant life as well. • “Global Warming” – An increase in the overall temperature of planet earth; 8 of the 10 hottest years in recorded history have occurred since 2000. Many scientists link the rise of earth’s temperature to the release of carbon dioxide into earth’s atmosphere, creating a barrier which keep heat from being released into outer space. • Ecological disasters have also harmed our environment. A chemical plant at Bhopal, India released toxic fumes into the air in 1984. A nuclear accident at Chernobyl in 1986 released radiation. Hundreds died, and there were long-last health and environmental consequences. In 1989 the oil tanker Exxon Valdez ran aground in Alaska. The spill killed thousands of birds and polluted fishing areas. • In the social and economic spheres of the Western world, the gap that once separated men and women has been steadily narrowing. More and more women are joining the workforce, and they make up half of university graduates in Western countries. Many countries have laws that require equal pay for women and men doing the same work, and some laws prohibit promotions based on gender. Nevertheless, women in many Western countries still do not hold many top positions in business or government.

47. Global Warming

48. Sustainable Growth • The goal of nation’s who hope to reduce the negative effect that development has on the environment; Sustainable growth involves meeting current economic needs, while ensuring the preservation of the environment and the conservation of resources for future generations. • Economic development has also led to problems with the land. Large-scale soil erosion is a worldwide problem due to damaging farming techniques. The habitat destruction that comes from land development has also led to shrinking numbers of wildlife around the world At present, the extinction rate of plants and animals is about a thousand times greater than it would naturally be, and appears to be increasing. This high extinction rate means that certain species can no longer serve as an economic resource. The resulting loss of wildlife could endanger complex and life-sustaining processes that keep Earth in balance. • Working together, economists and scientists are looking for ways to reduce the negative effect that development has on the environment. Their goal is to manage development so that growth can occur, but without destroying air, water, and land resources. The concept is sometimes called “green growth.” many people feel that the negative impact of economic growth on the environment will not be completely removed. Closure Question #3: Do you think that sustainable growth is possible? Why or why not?

49. Closure Assignment #6 • Answer the following questions based on what you have learned from Chapter 36, Section 2: • In what ways has technology changed the workplace of people across the world? • Why might some nations favor imposing tariffs on the import of certain products? • Do you think that sustainable growth is possible? Why or why not?

50. Nuclear Proliferation Closure Question #1: Why is nuclear proliferation a global concern? (At least 1 sentence) The spread of nuclear weapons production technology and knowledge to nations without that capability. The UN works to stop nuclear proliferation; however, in recent years India, Pakistan, Israel, North Korea, and Iran have all gained nuclear weapon capability in the past 20 years. The UN established the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in 1957. This agency operates a safeguards system against nuclear proliferation. The greatest risk comes from countries that have not joined or have violated the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT). India, Pakistan, Israel, North Korea, and Iran fall within these categories. In 1998, India and Pakistan exploded nuclear devices underground. North Korea performed its first nuclear test in October 2006, and Iran refused to shelve its nuclear enrichment program. As the IAEA director said, “The treat of nuclear terrorism is real and current… the existence of a nuclear threat anywhere is a threat everywhere, and as a global community, we will win or lose this battle together.” A July 2006 estimate put the current world population at over 6.5 billion people, only 18 years after passing the 5 billion mark. At its current rate of growth, the world population could reach 12.8 billion by 2050, according to the UN’s long-range population projections. The UN’s more conservative projection puts that number at 8.9 billion. Even with the more conservative figure, the world population is expected to increase 37% over the next four decades. Soon, the most populous nations in the world will be developing countries, especially India and China. By 2050 India will have surpassed China in population and will likely remain the most populous country in the world thereafter.