Chapter 10

1. Chapter 10 Intelligence

2. DEFINING INTELLIGENCE • Exactly what makes up intelligence is a matter of debate • David Wechsler’s Definition • Act purposefully • Think rationally • Deal effectively with the environment

3. EARLY THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE Ain’tnuthin but a G thang. • Charles Spearman • Believed intelligence is general – “G-Factor” • People who are bright in one area are usually bright in other areas as well • L. L. Thurstone • Believed that intelligence is made up of seven distinct, independent abilities: Spatial ability, perceptual speed, numerical ability, verbal meaning, memory, word fluency, reasoning • Thurstone did not believe in a G-Factor, but researchers who scored well in one of the seven areas tended to score well on others. 7 Different abilities!

4. Early Theories of Intelligence: R. B. Cattell • Identified two clusters of mental abilities • Crystallized intelligence includes abilities such as reasoning and verbal skills • Fluid intelligence includes skills such as spatial and visual imagery, rote memory, and the ability to notice visual details • While education can increase crystallized intelligence, it was not thought to have any effect on fluid intelligence

5. Contemporary Theories of Intelligence:Howard Gardner • Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences • Explains savant syndrome • Logical-mathematical • Linguistic • Spatial • Musical • Bodily-kinesthetic • Interpersonal • Intrapersonal • Naturalistic

6. CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE:HOWARD GARDNER

7. CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE:ROBERT STERNBERG • Triarchic theory of intelligence claims there are three types of intelligence (prototype of 3 grad school applicants) • Analytical intelligence includes the ability to learn how to do things, solve problems, and acquire new knowledge (Alice) • Creative intelligence includes the ability adjust to new tasks, generate novel ideas, use new concepts, and respond well in new situations (Barbara) • Practical intelligence includes the ability to select contexts in which you can excel and solve practical problems (Celia)

8. Creativity • Defined as the ability to produce novel and socially valued ideas or objects • Creativity and Intelligence – Early studies suggested that there was little relationship between the two, however, later research indicates otherwise: creative individuals tend to have higher IQs AND creative individuals are perceived as being more intelligent as well. • IQ of at least 120 required to be creative, but it doesn’t mean you will be! Convicted murderer Phil Spector was seen as a creative genius in his heyday. Creativity and evil, however, often go hand in hand (as does large hair).

9. Creativity • Creativity Tests – • Open-ended questions; scoring is based upon the number and originality of a person’s answers • Torrance Test – Individuals create and explain a picture, its origins, and consequences from incomplete images • Mednick’s Remote Association Test (RAT) – given three words – you come up with a fourth word that the other three can be combined with e.g. hand, lone, win (answer = some) • Sternberg’s Components of creativity • Expertise • Imaginative thinking skills • A venturesome personality • Intrinsic motivation • A creative environment

10. Contemporary Theories of Intelligence • Daniel Goleman • Proposed theory of emotional intelligence • Emotional intelligence has five components • Knowing one’s own emotions • Managing one’s own emotions • Using emotions to motivate oneself • Recognizing the emotions of other people • Managing relationships • Does emotional intelligence go too far?

11. Comparing Contemporary Theories

12. Can Intelligence Be Neurologically Measured? • Brain size seems to be modestly correlated with intelligence, but this is not always the case. • Specific brain areas such as frontal and parietal lobes seem to be important regions • The varying sizes of brain structure could result from nature and/or nurture • Perceptual speed tends to indicate intelligence • Neurological speed also tends to indicate intelligence Lord Byron was not only emo, beautiful and brilliant, but his brain was massive to boot!

13. INTELLIGENCE TESTS: BINET AND SIMON • First test of intelligence, developed to identify children who might have difficulty in school • Binet developed the concept of mental age in children • Mental Age = age at which you perform intellectually - may or may not correspond with chronological age • Goal was to use intelligence tests to improve children’s educational experience – not limit their opportunities with harmful labels.

14. INTELLIGENCE TESTS:STANFORD-BINET INTELLIGENCE SCALE • Lewis M. Terman’s adaptation of the Binet-Simon scale • Terman’s goal was to measure “inherited intelligence” for purpose of eugenics • The test was used on immigrants and army recruits • Results interpreted as justifying superiority of Anglo-Saxon people • Used to justify limits set on immigrants from southern and eastern Europe - 1924 • Stanford-Binet measures four kinds of mental abilities • Verbal reasoning • Abstract/visual reasoning • Quantitative reasoning • Short-term memory

15. INTELLIGENCE TESTS:STANFORD-BINET INTELLIGENCE SCALE • Terman’s work served as the basis for William Stern of Germany to develop the concept of IQ, or Intelligence Quotient • IQ = Mental Age/Chronological Age x 100 • Most common IQ score? • Problem of IQ calculation beyond adulthood solved through comparison with norms for every age group • Sample Problems: • Mental Age = 8, Chronological age = 6, IQ = ? • IQ = 150, Chronological age = 4. Mental age = ?

16. EUGENICS MOVEMENT:POLITICIZED “SCIENCE”

17. INTELLIGENCE TESTS:WESCHLER SCALES • The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) is the most commonly used test of intelligence for adults • WAIS is divided into to 11 parts that focus on verbal abilities and on performance skills • Also a version for children, Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)

18. INTELLIGENCE TESTS:WESCHLER SCALES

19. APTITUDE VS. ACHIEVEMENT? • Achievement tests measure what you have already learned • Aptitude tests measure your potential to learn. • There is a positive correlation between aptitude tests results and intelligence tests. • e.g. correlation between SAT and IQ?

20. PRINCIPLES OF TEST CONSTRUCTION • All good intelligence must be all three of the following: • Standardized • Reliable • Valid • Standardization - uniform rules for administering, taking and scoring the test based on comparing performance to that of a pretested group. • Norms – performance benchmarks established during test development used to establish “average” performance. • Representative Sample – group used to establish norms that adequately reflects the demographics of those who will be taking the test. • Standardization Sample – the group that determined the norms

21. PRINCIPLES OF TEST CONSTRUCTION • In a standardized intelligence test, scores should be distributed in a bell-shaped curve, or normal curve. • Most individuals taking intelligence tests should score a 100, with the majority falling between 85-115. • Due to the Flynn Effect, intelligence tests must be periodically restandardized to keep norms valid.

22. PRINCIPLES OF TEST CONSTRUCTION • Reliability - Ability of a test to provide consistent and stable scores • Test-retest reliability – a method of measuring reliability where the same individual is given the test on two different occasions and scores are compared. Similarity in scores indicates good test-retest reliability • Split-half reliability – method of measuring reliability where the individual takes one test that is divided in half. Performance on each half is compared for similarity. • Alternate-form reliability – two different but similar forms of the test are given on separate occasions and scores are compared for similarity.

23. PRINCIPLES OF TEST CONSTRUCTION • Validity - Ability of a test to measure what it purports to measure • Content validity – tests ability to cover the complete range of material (content) it is supposed to measure • Predictive validity – how well a test score predicts an individual’s performance in the future • Correlation between SAT scores and first-year grades in college? +.5 – not great! • Correlation between GRE and grad school grades? +.4 – even worse!

24. Scoring the IQ Test • Raw Score - number of questions answered correctly; doesn’t tell much about performance • Standard Score - score that tells you how you did compared to other test takers – a much better read of performance • Percentile Score - what percentage of test takers you scored better than • What does it mean to score in the 85th percentile?

25. INTELLIGENCE:STABILITY OR CHANGE? • Intellectual ability does not seem to stabilize until age 7, but by age 4 performance on intelligence tests seems to predict future performance • Ian Deary study seems to establish that intelligence does remain relatively stable over time. • All 10.5-11.5 year-olds in Scotland tested in 1932 • Follow up on the survivors done as recently as 2004 indicates intelligence tests remained consistent

26. Extremes of Intelligence: Giftedness • Definition • top 3% of IQ scores, typically over 132 • Superior IQ combined with ability in academics, creativity, and leadership • Giftedness is often in specific areas • “Globally” gifted people are rare • Some gifted children feel isolated and lonely, but most are well adjusted • Specialized Programs of Study?

27. EXTREMES OF INTELLIGENCE: MENTAL RETARDATION (INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY) • Definition • IQ < 70; lowest 3% of IQ scores • not a result of accident • onset before age 18 • substantial limitations in functioning • Causes – drug abuse during pregnancy, genetic disorders such as Down Syndrome, lack of fetal nutrition • Levels • Mild - 90% of cases • Moderate - 6% of cases • Severe - 3% of cases • Profound - 1% of cases • Some people with retardation show savant performance on particular skills

28. EXTREMES OF INTELLIGENCE: MENTAL RETARDATION (INTELLECTUAL DISBAILITY)

29. Education and the Law • All children are entitled to an education that is… • FREE • PUBLIC • APPROPRIATE • Mainstreaming • keeping special needs kids in regular ed classes for whatever subject areas/activities they can handle • Inclusion • rather than taking special needs kids out of regular ed classes for support, bring support personnel into regular ed classes so kids can stay with their peers. • Leveling • separating children by ability into different classes

30. Criticisms of IQ Tests • Test content and scores • Critics argue that IQ test measure a narrow set of skills • Some feel that the tests merely measure test taking ability • Tests may discriminate against minorities • Use of intelligence tests • Could result in permanent labeling • IQ and success • Relationship does exist, but may be the result of a self-fulfilling prophecy • Case of Gladys Burr?

31. WHAT DETERMINES INTELLIGENCE?NATURE • Biological similarities in Adoption Studies • IQ scores of child more closely correlated with biological mother than adoptive mother. • Identical Twins reared apart • after identical twins reared together, identical twins reared apart have the highest correlation of IQ scores. • Tryon’s Rats nature…AND NURTURE…

32. Correlation of IQ Scores of Family Members

33. WHAT DETERMINES INTELLIGENCE?NURTURE • Isolated or Deprived Environments • individuals living in culturally or physically impoverished environments have lower IQ scores • Adoption Studies and Improved Environment • children demonstrated elevated IQ scores after being moved from crowded orphanage to distributing them into less crowded adult wards • H.M. Skeelsorphanange study • Capron and Duyme’s adoption study high vs. low SES

34. WHAT DETERMINES INTELLIGENCE?:FAMILY SIZE AND STRUCTURE • Belmont and Marolla (1973) • Zajonc and Markus (1975) • Intellectual Climate – numerical calculation of the level of intellect in a household, based on the number of family members and their ages. Example Calculation – adults = 30, teens = 15, children = 5, and newborns = 0: • 2 adults: • 30+30=60/2=intellectual climate of 30 • 2 adults and a newborn: • 30+30+0=60/3=intellectual climate of 20 • Intellectual climate goes down most when there are many children born in rapid succession.

35. Heredity vs. Environment:Which is More Important? • There is general agreement that both heredity and environment affect IQ scores • Debate centers around the relative contribution of nature (heredity) and nurture (environment) to the development of intelligence

36. DETERMINANTS OF INTELLIGENCE: SEX • Early Research (1970s) • males excel at math/spatial skill while females excel at verbal • Hyde and Linn’s Meta-analysis (1988) • intellectual differences between males and females are so small that they are not statistically significant. • Today’s Conclusions • Overall, men and women do not differ significantly in general intelligence • Women show slight advantage in verbal and mathematical computation skills while men show an advantage in spatial ability • Men are more likely to fall in the extremes of intelligence range • There is no explanation for why these minimal differences exist – are they cultural or inborn?

37. DETERMINANTS OF INTELLIGENCE:CULTURE • Culture • Difference in academic performance between American and Asian students are found from first grade through high school in mathematics and reading • May be related to a difference in cultural attitudes toward ability and effort • Stability of Intelligence • IQ stays relatively steady over course of life