Intro to Research Methods in Psychology

1. Intro to Research Methods in Psychology Please read Chapters 4 and 5 in Martin

2. Major Topics • Research -- what it is. • Planning a research project. • Selecting the research units (“subjects”) from which data will be collected. • Constructing or obtaining the instruments used to collect data. • Relative merits of commonly employed research designs. • Analysis of the data. • Preparing a research report.

3. Social Sciences Research Research in the social sciences (including psychology) is • theoretical (sometimes), • empirical • nomothetic, and • probabilistic

4. A Scientific Theory • A model of how basic constructs and measured variables are related to one another. • Constructed by induction – inferring the general from the specific. • Generates predictions (hypotheses) by deduction – inferring the specific from the general.

5. Tested by attempting to falsify. • From theory, derive hypotheses. • Gather relevant data. • If data match hypotheses, theory supported. • If not, modify theory or abandon it.

6. Is not just a hunch. • Explains all known facts in domain of interest. • Must be refutable.

7. Exploratory Research • Not all psyc research is theory-driven. • I can wonder about the relationship between X and Y without any guiding theory. • Exploratory research provides the raw materials from which theories are refined.

8. Empiricism • Epistemology • origins and nature of human knowledge • Rationalism • knowledge through thought • Pythagoreans, Socrates • Empiricism • knowledge through sensory experience

9. Nomothetic • Applies to the general case. • We study individuals • to explain, predict, and control behavior • not just in one individual, but in most. • As opposed to idiographic. • where the focus is on a single individual.

10. Probabilistic • Our interest is in the entire population • for example, correlates of perceived attractiveness in all humans. • But our data (sample) represents only a small proportion of that population. • So our conclusions cannot be free of possible error • must be stated in probabilistic terms.

11. Three Basic Types of Research • Descriptive (Univariate) • Relational • Causal

12. Descriptive Research • Univariate – work with only one variable at a time. • Example: How many people dream in color?

13. Relational Research • Determine how variables are related to one another. • Is age related to dreaming in color? • Is sex/gender related to dreaming in color? • Is arousal of certain brain areas related to dreaming in color?

14. Causal Research • Is X a cause of Y? • If I manipulate X, will Y change? • Establish that X and Y are related. • Rule out (noncausal) alternative explanations. • Employ experimental methodology. • Eliminate confounds.

15. Third Variable Problems

16. Research and Time • Cross Sectional Research • Compare political attitudes of 20 vs 50 years olds. • Differences due to maturation or ?? • Longitudinal Research • Follow multiple cohorts, measure at 20, 30, 40, 50 years of age. • Repeated Measures and Time Series

17. Patterns of Relationships Between Continuous Variables • None • Positive Linear • Negative Linear • Curvilinear • See Bivariate Linear Correlation.

18. Hypotheses • Null hypotheses • Alternative hypotheses • Nondirectional hypotheses • Directional hypotheses • Sharp/Point null hypotheses • Loose/Range null hypotheses

19. A Research ProjectFrom Start to Finish Formulating the Initial Broad Question • Experiencing a practical problem. • Familiarity with past research and theory. • RFP – requests for research proposals. • Curiosity about everyday experiences. • my curiosity regarding attitudes about animal research

20. Narrow Down the Question • Want a question that can be well addressed in a single research study. • Focus in on one or a few parameters • Theory may suggest which parameters are most important • Or you just might have a hunch while sitting on the couch watching the news. • How is misanthropy related to attitude about animals?

21. The Research Hypothesis • Theory, insight, or hunch may suggest an answer to the question posed. • This becomes the research hypothesis. • Ethical cost/benefit analysis and a relationship between misanthropy and attitudes about animals.

22. Operationalization • How to manipulate or measure the concepts in the research hypothesis. • Manipulate misanthropy by exposing some subjects to depictions of evil humans. • Develop questionnaire to measure misanthropy.

23. Reviewing the Literature • Has somebody else already answered this question? • If so, what additional research is suggested by those results? • Have others addressed similar questions? • How did others operationalize constructs, recruit subjects, get grants, analyze the data, and so on.

24. Procedural Details and Feasibility • Prepare a step-by-step plan. • Can you afford it? • If not, are there less expensive methods? • How many subjects will you need? • How can you motivate your subjects? • From whom will you need permission, cooperation, or assistance?

25. Are there statistical procedures available to analyze the data you will collect in a way that will answer your question? • Can you conduct such analysis yourself or will you have to hire a research statistician?

26. Gathering & Analyzing the Data • Consider conducting a pilot study. • You can count on some things going wrong. Be prepared to deal with them. • Screen your data to determine if you can analyze them the way you intended to. If not, adopt alternative analysis. • Be on the lookout for unanticipated findings and be prepared to shift your attention to them.

27. Using Your Statistical Results to Answer Your Question • If your question was simple, your design experimental, and your results what you expected, this is a breeze. • Otherwise, be ready to sweat it out.

28. Writing a Research Report • Share your results with the world. • Use the style appropriate for your discipline. • For most psychologists, that is the style of the American Psychological Association. • I have (or will have) taught you the basics of APA style.

29. Research Validity Will your research lead to conclusions that fit the available data and stand up to criticism. • Statistical Conclusion Validity • Internal Validity • Construct Validity • External Validity

30. Statistical Conclusion Validity Determine the extent to which variables are related. • Power • Efficiency of Estimation • Robustness

31. Internal Validity Is there a causal relationship between these variables? • Experimental research • Various threats to internal validity

32. Construct Validity Have we operationalized our constructs well? • We have demonstrated a relationship between our measured variables. • Does this make us confident that there is a relationship between the underlying constructs?

33. External Validity Can we generalize the results? • to other types of subjects • to other situations • to other measurements of the constructs • etc.