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Chapter 2

Chapter 2. Theories of Development. The Nature of Developmental Theories Theory: A set of ideas proposed to describe and explain certain phenomena Provides organization of facts and observations Guides collection of new facts and observations A good developmental theory should be

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Chapter 2

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  1. Chapter 2 Theories of Development

  2. The Nature of Developmental Theories • Theory: A set of ideas proposed to describe and explain certain phenomena • Provides organization of facts and observations • Guides collection of new facts and observations • A good developmental theory should be • Internally consistent • Falsifiable: Hypotheses which can be tested • Supported by data

  3. Assumptions About Human Nature • Theories & the nature of human development • Hobbes (1588-1697) • Society must civilize inherently selfish, bad children • Rousseau (1712-1778) • Society should allow children to follow their naturally good instincts • Locke (1632-1704) • “Tabula Rasa” or blank slate • Children will be good/bad based on experiences

  4. Other Assumptions About Human Nature • Nature/Nurture: Heredity or Environment • Active or Passive Development • Humans shape their lives • Humans are products of forces beyond their control • Continuity/Discontinuity: Stages or gradual change • Quantitative Changes: Degree of trait or behavior • Qualitative Changes: Transformational changes • Universal or Context Specific Development

  5. Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory • Instincts and Unconscious Motivation • Id, Ego, and Superego formed from psychic energy (libido) • Id represents human’s instinctual nature • Ego is rational and objective • Superego: Internalized moral standards • Regular conflicts between them

  6. Freud’s Psychosexual Development • Child moves through five stages • Conflict between Id and Superego • Conflict creates anxiety • Ego defends w/ defense mechanisms • Early experiences impact personality • Oral: Optimistic & gullible v. hostile • Anal: Fastidious & orderly v. messy • Phallic: Flirty & promiscuous v. chaste

  7. Strengths and Weaknesses of Freud’s Theory • Strengths • Awareness of unconscious motivation • Emphasized importance of early experience, emotions • Neo-Freudians have been influential • Weaknesses • Ambiguous, inconsistent, not testable (falsifiable) • Not supported by research

  8. Erik Erikson • Most influential Neo-Freudian, especially for development • Some differences with Freud • Less emphasis on sexual urges • More emphasis on rational ego • More positive and adaptive view of human nature • Believed development continues through life • Emphasized psychosocial conflicts

  9. Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages • Trust vs. Mistrust: responsive caregiver key • Learn to trust caregiver to meet needs • Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt • Learn to assert will and do for themselves • Initiative vs. Guilt: Preschool • Devising/carrying out plans without hurting others • Industry vs. Inferiority: School-Age children • Master social academic skills on par with others

  10. Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages • Identity vs. Role Confusion: Adolescence • Establish social and vocational identities • Intimacy vs. Isolation: Young Adult • Establish intimate relations with others • Generativity vs. Stagnation: Middle Age • Feel productive and helping next generation • Integrity vs. Despair: Older Adult • View their life as meaningful to face death w/o regret

  11. Strengths and Weaknesses of Erikson • Strengths • Emphasis on rational and adaptive nature • Interaction of biological and social influences • Focus on identity crisis of adolescence still relevant • Weaknesses • Sometimes vague and difficult to test • Does not explain how development comes about

  12. Cognitive-Developmental Theory: Piaget • Intelligence = Ability to adapt to environment • Constructivism: Understanding based on experience • Interaction of biology and environment leads to each stage • Sensorimotor (age 0-2) • Preoperational (age 2-7) • Concrete operations (age 7-11) • Formal operations (age 12+)

  13. Cognitive-Developmental Theory: Piaget • Sensorimotor (age 0-2) • Use senses/motor beh to understand world • Begin w/ reflexes but learn symbolic use of language & can plan solutions mentally • Preoperational (age 2-7) • Language devleopment, pretend play, solve problems mentally • Not yet logical, are egocentric, fooled by perception

  14. Cognitive-Developmental Theory: Piaget • Concrete operations (age 7-11) • Logical operations, mentally classify/act on concrete symbolized objects • Solves practical problems via trial and error • Formal operations (age 12+) • Think abstractly, hypothetical, trace long-term effects of beh • Form hypotheses and test them empirically

  15. Cognitive-Developmental Theory • Strengths • Well accepted by developmentalists • Well researched, mostly supported • Influenced education and parenting • Weaknesses • Ignores motivation and emotion • Stages not universal

  16. Contextual and Systems Theories • Psychobiological, evolutionary theories • Historical context • Sociocultural Perspective – Vygotsky • Cognitive development a social process • Problem solving aided by dialogues • The Bioecological Approach – Bronfenbrenner • Reciprocal influence of person and environment

  17. Bronfenbrenner’s Systems Approach • Microsystem: Immediate environment • Mesosystem: Linkages between microsystems • Exosystem: Indirectly experienced linkages • Macrosystem: Culture of systems

  18. Figure 2.4

  19. Bronfenbrenner • Strengths • Emphasis on context • Weaknesses • Partially formulated • Too many generalizations • Should be combined with stage theories

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