Chapter 12: Personality: Theory, Research, and Assessment

1. Chapter 12: Personality: Theory, Research, and Assessment

2. Defining Personality:Consistency and Distinctiveness Personality Traits Dispositions and dimensions The Five-Factor Model Extraversion Neuroticism Openness to experience Agreeableness Conscientiousness The concept of personality is used to explain the stability in a person�s behavior over time and across situations (consistency) and the behavioral differences among people reacting to the same situation (distinctiveness). Personality refers to an individual�s unique constellation of consistent behavioral traits. A personality trait is a durable disposition to behave in a particular way in a variety of situations�adjectives like honest, moody, impulsive, and excitable describe dispositions that represent personality traits. In the 1950�s and 60�s, Raymond Cattell used the procedure of factor analysis � correlating many variables to identify closely related clusters of variables � to reduce Gordon Allport�s (1937) list of thousands of personality traits to just 16 basic dimensions. He also developed a test called the 16 PF to measure where a person falls along these 16 personality dimensions. More recently, McCrae and Costa have used factor analysis to arrive at an even simpler, five-factor model of personality�the big five. High Extraversion scores signify that a person is outgoing, sociable, upbeat, friendly, assertive, and gregarious. Some trait models refer to this as positive emotionality. High Neuroticism scores signify that a person is anxious, hostile, self-conscious, insecure, and vulnerable�some models call this negative emotionality. Openness to experience is associated with curiosity, flexibility, vivid fantasy, imaginativeness, artistic sensitivity, and unconventional attitudes. Agreeableness is associated with people who are sympathetic, trusting, cooperative, modest, and straightforward�may have its roots in temperament. Conscientious people are diligent, disciplined, well organized, punctual, and dependable�some models refer to this trait as constraint�related to high productivity in a variety of occupational areas.The concept of personality is used to explain the stability in a person�s behavior over time and across situations (consistency) and the behavioral differences among people reacting to the same situation (distinctiveness). Personality refers to an individual�s unique constellation of consistent behavioral traits. A personality trait is a durable disposition to behave in a particular way in a variety of situations�adjectives like honest, moody, impulsive, and excitable describe dispositions that represent personality traits. In the 1950�s and 60�s, Raymond Cattell used the procedure of factor analysis � correlating many variables to identify closely related clusters of variables � to reduce Gordon Allport�s (1937) list of thousands of personality traits to just 16 basic dimensions. He also developed a test called the 16 PF to measure where a person falls along these 16 personality dimensions. More recently, McCrae and Costa have used factor analysis to arrive at an even simpler, five-factor model of personality�the big five. High Extraversion scores signify that a person is outgoing, sociable, upbeat, friendly, assertive, and gregarious. Some trait models refer to this as positive emotionality. High Neuroticism scores signify that a person is anxious, hostile, self-conscious, insecure, and vulnerable�some models call this negative emotionality. Openness to experience is associated with curiosity, flexibility, vivid fantasy, imaginativeness, artistic sensitivity, and unconventional attitudes. Agreeableness is associated with people who are sympathetic, trusting, cooperative, modest, and straightforward�may have its roots in temperament. Conscientious people are diligent, disciplined, well organized, punctual, and dependable�some models refer to this trait as constraint�related to high productivity in a variety of occupational areas.

3. Psychodynamic Perspectives Freud�s psychoanalytic theory Structure of personality Id - Pleasure principle Ego - Reality principle Superego - Morality Levels of awareness Conscious Unconscious Preconscious Psychodynamic theories include all the diverse theories descended from the work of Sigmund Freud, which focus on unconscious mental processes. Freud�s psychoanalytic theory (1901, 1924, 1940) grew out of his decades of interactions with his clients. This theory focuses on the influence of early childhood experiences, unconscious motives and conflicts, and the methods people use to cope with sexual and aggressive urges. Freud divided personality into 3 components. The id is the primitive, instinctive component of personality that operates according to the pleasure principle, which demands immediate gratification and engages in primary-process thinking (primitive, illogical, irrational, and fantasy oriented). The ego is the decision-making component of personality that operates according to the reality principle, seeking to delay gratification of the id�s urges until appropriate outlets can be found, thus mediating between the id and the external world. The superego is the moral component of personality that incorporates social standards about what represents right and wrong�the superego emerges out of the ego at around 3-5 years of age. Freud�s most enduring insight was his recognition that unconscious forces can influence behavior. Freud theorized that people have 3 levels of awareness, conscious, preconscious, and unconscious.Psychodynamic theories include all the diverse theories descended from the work of Sigmund Freud, which focus on unconscious mental processes. Freud�s psychoanalytic theory (1901, 1924, 1940) grew out of his decades of interactions with his clients. This theory focuses on the influence of early childhood experiences, unconscious motives and conflicts, and the methods people use to cope with sexual and aggressive urges. Freud divided personality into 3 components. The id is the primitive, instinctive component of personality that operates according to the pleasure principle, which demands immediate gratification and engages in primary-process thinking (primitive, illogical, irrational, and fantasy oriented). The ego is the decision-making component of personality that operates according to the reality principle, seeking to delay gratification of the id�s urges until appropriate outlets can be found, thus mediating between the id and the external world. The superego is the moral component of personality that incorporates social standards about what represents right and wrong�the superego emerges out of the ego at around 3-5 years of age. Freud�s most enduring insight was his recognition that unconscious forces can influence behavior. Freud theorized that people have 3 levels of awareness, conscious, preconscious, and unconscious.

4. Psychodynamic Perspectives Freud�s psychoanalytic theory Conflict Sex and Aggression Anxiety Defense Mechanisms Freud saw behavior as the outcome of an ongoing series of internal conflicts between the id, ego, and superego; with conflicts centering on sex and aggressive impulses having far reaching consequences. These conflicts lead to anxiety, which causes the ego to construct defense mechanisms, exercises in self-deception, as protection.Freud saw behavior as the outcome of an ongoing series of internal conflicts between the id, ego, and superego; with conflicts centering on sex and aggressive impulses having far reaching consequences. These conflicts lead to anxiety, which causes the ego to construct defense mechanisms, exercises in self-deception, as protection.