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Descriptions This hand out intends to identify core areas of knowledge that will be imparted to students who aspire to join higher education institutions in Ethiopia. Focus area of the material is according to national outline and curriculum. As is always the case, students will be dealing with ancient, medieval and modern history of different parts of the world. Historically relevant themes are also part of the hand out. This hand out will be a base for ESSLE but it is incomplete and it needs both students and instructors dealing with other relevant references. This hand out is prepared for Remedial Students. It is written and edited through great dedication of instructors of department of History and Heritage management. Chapter One Introduction Definition and Uses of History The term "history," originating from the Greek word "Istoria," denotes "inquiry" or "an account of one's inquiries." It narrates the story of humans in the past, chronicling their actions and expe- riences. Historians, individuals devoted to studying and documenting the human past, assert that history commenced about 5,500 years ago with the advent of writing. However, the narrative of humanity begins in prehistory. Prehistory, the exploration of the distant past before the development of writing, engages Ar- chaeologists and Anthropologists in deciphering clues about early human life. While only a fragment of these past events is studied, it is referred to as history. In contrast to prehistory, the subject of history predominantly focuses on the past, commencing from the advent of writing and recording. Historians are the custodians of human history, whereas other disciplines engage with the present. Human interaction with the natural environment, in pursuit of fundamental needs like food, shelter, and clothing, has driven advancements in production tools and the quali- ty and quantity of produce. History, as a body of knowledge, constitutes an account of the past based on historical facts and evidence. Historical facts are statements about the past known or proven to be true. History entails interpreting events, unraveling why and how they occurred based on sources. It encompasses both factual occurrences and the inquiry into these facts, distinct from opinion or creative writing. Distinguishing between fact and opinion is a crucial skill in history, demanding critical thinking. History, as a branch of social science, explores past human activities, studying changes in political, economic, social, and cultural facets of past societies' development. The Importance of History History serves as a tool to understand the past, make sense of the present, and anticipate future developments. It offers insights into national and international issues, democratic principles, and nationalism. Additionally, history fosters essential skills for collecting and analyzing information, enabling individuals to actively shape their future. It is instrumental in developing critical research skills, enhancing understanding of the present, instilling a sense of identity, and en- tertaining, contributing to rational thinking. Historiography and Historical Interpretations Historiography: Historiography is the study of how knowledge about the past is acquired and transmitted. The world's oldest written history comes from China, dating before 1000 BC. Ancient Greek histori- 1

ans like Herodotus and Thucydides played a significant role in organizing the study and narration of history. The term "historiography" is attributed to Herodotus, often considered the "father of history." History became an academic discipline in the 19th century, with Leopold Von Ranke establishing it as an independent discipline. Historical Interpretation: Historians select specific topics or problems to study within the vast scope of historical events. History is a systematic and objective study of the past, following established rules and proce- dures. Historians use specific methods in writing history, aiming for objective pursuit of truth while acknowledging the challenge of avoiding bias. Historical interpretation involves describ- ing, analyzing, evaluating, and explaining past events based on primary or secondary sources. Sources of History: History relies on evidence from sources, and without sources, there is no history. Primary sources are contemporary with the events under study, such as monuments, written materials, photographs, etc. Secondary sources derive information from primary sources and include articles, books, text- books, journals, etc. Oral traditions, transmitted by word of mouth, can serve as historical sources and are classified based on the nature of informants. Critical evaluation is crucial for both primary and secondary sources to ensure authenticity and reliability. The passage emphasizes the importance of sources in historical study, the evolution of historiography as a discipline, and the need for critical evaluation in interpreting historical information. Dating in History: Historians use dating to determine the exact time when historical events occurred. Dating involves numerical statements expressing the time of events, using units like decades, centuries, and millennia. Figurative expressions, such as specific dates, are used to describe the time of events. Units of Time: Decade: A period of ten years. Century: One hundred years. Millennium: A thousand years. Chronology and Calendars: The primary purpose of dating is to organize events by their sequence of occurrence through chronology. Calendars, such as the Gregorian and Islamic calendars are widely used for dating. The Gregorian calendar counts time forward and backward from the birth of Jesus Christ, using BC (Before Christ) and AD (anno Domini). Ethiopia has its calendar, about seven to eight years behind the Gregorian calendar. The Islamic calendar uses the Hijra event to count time, with BH (before Hijra) and AH (after Hijra). Timeline and Periodization: Historians sometimes use timelines, graphic representations of events in chronological order. Timelines provide a quick visualization and clear understanding of the passage of time regarding events. 2

Due to the length of time, historians organize the human past into separate periods, leading to the concept of periodization. History is conventionally divided into ancient, medieval, and modern history based on significant developments. The passage underscores the role of dating in historical analysis, the use of different calendar systems, and the organization of historical periods through periodization. 1.3 Features, Interdependence, and Achievements of Major Civilizations 1.3.1 Civilizations in Africa Ancient Egypt: The civilization of Ancient Egypt emerged around 3000 BC, flourishing in the Nile Valley. Traditionally, Upper and Lower Egypt unified around 3200 BC by Menes. Agricul- ture, supported by the fertile Nile silt, formed the economic foundation. Wheat, barley, and live- stock were essential to the Egyptian economy. Trade played a vital role, and the empire was gov- erned by an absolute king known as a pharaoh. The pharaohs were considered divine rulers, practicing polytheism and believing in an afterlife. Mummification became a skilled art, reflecting advancements in medicine. Egyptian society was hierarchically structured, and they developed hieroglyphics, a form of writing, around 3000 BC. Nubia: Kush, a kingdom along the Nile in northeastern Sudan, existed from 2000 BC to about 350 AD. Agriculture, pastoralism, and trade were key elements of the Nubian economy. Nubian states, ruled by absolute kings and queens, considered their rulers divine. Metal technology, particularly in Meroe, was advanced, focusing on gold, copper, silver, and iron. Nubia experienced periods of conquest and rule by Egypt, and it eventually fell to the Aksumites around 350 AD. 1.3.2 Civilizations in Asia Mesopotamia: Encompassing eastern Syria, Southern Turkey, and parts of Iraq, Mesopotamia was home to the Sumerian civilization, which began building the world's first cities around 3200 BC. Sumerians used mud bricks to construct Ziggurats and practiced flood control and irrigation for agriculture. Kings ruled with divine authority, representing major gods. Sumerians were polytheistic and introduced innovations like the plough, potter wheel, and bronze usage. They developed cuneiform writing, a complex system of ideographs, along with advancements in mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and metalwork. Persia: The land that includes present-day Iran and Afghanistan, Persia, established the Persian Empire around 550 BC under Cyrus the Great. This became one of the largest empires, spanning from Europe to India and parts of North Africa. Persians contributed to government, law, and religion. They built roads, established the world's first postal service, and practiced Zoroastrian- ism, founded by the prophet Zoroaster. India: The first Indian civilization in the Indus Valley began around 2500 BC and reached its height around 1500 BC. The society had advanced systems for counting, measuring, and writing. They engaged in agriculture, trade, and crafted copper, bronze, and gold items. The hierarchical division of society and the development of Hinduism were notable features. Buddhism emerged as a reform movement, spreading to Southeast Asia, China, and Japan. China: Ancient Chinese civilization originated in the Yellow River Region in Northern China around the third millennium BC. Expanding to central and southern parts, it reached its height around 3000 BC. The Shang dynasty (c. 1700-1122 BC) achieved milestones like bronze vessels, war chariots, and a writing system. Confucianism, introduced by Confucius (551-479 BC), be- 3

came a significant philosophical influence. The construction of the Great Wall and the development of logographic writing were remarkable achievements. These civilizations, diverse in geography and cultural practices, contributed significantly to human history, leaving a lasting impact on various aspects of society, economy, and governance. 1.3.3 Ancient Civilizations of Latin America Maya: The Maya, a Native American people, thrived in the western hemisphere from approxi- mately 250 to 900 AD. They were known for their remarkable achievements in architecture, painting, pottery, and sculpture. The Maya excelled in astronomy and mathematics, developing an accurate yearly calendar. They also had an advanced form of writing. Worshiping numerous gods and goddesses, the Maya built tall limestone pyramids with small temples on top. Spanish colonization began in the 16th century, leading to the domination of the Maya region by the late 17th century. Inca: The Inca, a South American native people, established one of the largest and richest empires in the Americas, with expansion beginning around 1438. The Inca Empire covered present- day Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina, with its capital in Cusco, Peru. The Inca were skilled in engineering and crafts, building an extensive road network. Craft workers created fine artifacts from gold, silver, and other materials. Spanish forces conquered the Inca Empire after 1532. Aztecs: The Aztecs, another Native American people, ruled a powerful empire in Mexico during the 15th and 16th centuries. Centered in the valley of Mexico, the Aztec Empire included many cities and towns, with the largest being the capital, Tenochtitlan (present-day Mexico City). Ag- riculture formed the basis of the Aztec economy. The Aztecs practiced a complex polytheistic religion, worshipping hundreds of gods and goddesses. They used a form of writing known as pictographic writing. Unfortunately, the Aztec Empire was dismantled by the Spanish in 1521. 1.3.4 Civilizations in Europe Ancient Greek Civilization: Ancient Greece, emerging about 2500 years ago, served as the birthplace of Western civilization. Greek culture flourished in small city-states known as Polis, with Athens and Sparta being notable examples. Although city-states remained separate entities, they shared a common language, religion, and culture. Greek achievements in various fields, including architecture, literature, drama, sculpture, history writing, medicine, and philosophy, formed the foundation for Western cultural heritage. Architecture: The Parthenon in Athens, a temple dedicated to Athena, stands as a prime example. Literature and Drama: Greeks invented drama, contributing significantly to the world of theatre. Sculptures: Greeks crafted statues of gods and heroes in materials such as marble and bronze. History Writing: Notable historians like Herodotus and Thucydides provided accounts of historical events. Medicine: Hippocrates, considered the father of modern medicine, made contributions to symp- tom identification and disease classification. Language Contributions: Greek-origin words such as "democracy," "psychology," "Olympic," and "marathon" have permeated modern languages. 4

Philosophy: Influential philosophers like Plato and Aristotle emerged in Athens, shaping philosophical thought for centuries. Ancient Roman Civilization: Beginning around 753 BC in present-day Italy, Ancient Rome significantly influenced Western civilization. Roman law, engineering feats like roads and aqueducts, public infrastructure, and the Colosseum are part of Rome's lasting legacy. The Roman Republic, established in 509 BC, lasted for nearly 500 years, transitioning into the Roman Empire around 27 BC after a series of civil wars. Rome's expansion through wars, notably the Punic Wars, extended its influence throughout the Mediterranean and beyond. Key contributions include: Roman Republic: A democratic society ruled by elected officials and a powerful Senate. Roman Empire: Characterized by centralized rule and relative peace during its first 200 years. Legacy: The Latin language evolved into the Latin languages of Europe and Latin America. Latin literature produced notable authors like Cicero, Caesar, Vergil, and Horace. Roman law, revived in the middle Ages, shaped legal systems across Western Europe and Latin America. The Julian calendar introduced by Julius Caesar forms the basis for the current Gregorian calendar. CHAPTER TWO 2. State formation and population movements in the horn of Africa till seventeenth century 2.1 North: Punt, Dama’at, Aksum, and Zagwe This section delves into the historical and archaeological aspects of states in the Horn of Africa until the seventeenth century, focusing on Punt, Dama’at, Aksum, and Zagwe. Punt: Ancient and historically known state in the Horn of Africa. Exact location uncertain, believed to be in coastal areas of Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia. Trade relations with Egypt since the third millennium BC. Land of Punt commercially important for providing goods to Egypt, including gold, ivory, skins, myrrh, myrrh trees, and ostrich feathers. Trade conducted by land and sea routes. Pre-Aksumite States: Emerged since 1000 BC, including Yeha, Hawlti-Melazo, Addi-Seglemeni, Metera, Kaskase, Coloe, etc. Yeha: Located northeast of Aksum, an ancient emporium prospering from about 750 to 500 BC. Known for ivory, rhinoceros horn, and other commodities. Hawulti Melazo: Situated southeast of Aksum, featuring a rectangular temple with inscribed stone tablets and paintings of cattle herds. 5

Damat: Existed before the rise of Aksum, centered south of Aksum. Rulers used the South Ara- bian title Mukarib, indicating external relations with South Arabia. Used the port of Adulis on the Red Sea coast. These states contribute to the rich historical tapestry of the Horn of Africa, engaging in trade, cultural exchanges, and establishing connections with neighboring regions. Aksumite Kingdom: The Aksumite Kingdom, emerging in the first century AD, resulted from the fusion of Cushitic and Semitic cultures in Ethiopia. The term "Aksum" comes from "Ak/ku," meaning water in Agaw, and "sum/shum," meaning chief in Semitic, symbolizing the "chief of water." Key Features: Political and Religious Center: Aksum's political and religious center was the city of Aksum, adorned with temples and monolithic steles, serving as the nucleus of the Aksumite civilization. Economic Foundation: The Aksumites depended on plough agriculture and generated substan- tial income from local and external trade through the port of Adulis on the Red Sea coast. Trade and Coinage: To facilitate trade, the Aksumites minted coins of bronze, silver, and gold. Trade contacts with the Greco-Roman world influenced the use of Sabean and Greek languages before the evolution of Ge’ez in the first three centuries. Religious Beliefs: Initially practicing indigenous religions, the Aksumites later adopted Christi- anity in the 4th century AD and Islam in the early 7th century. Cultural and Technological Development: Aksum continued as a significant center of highly developed civilization for several centuries, evident in ruins, including temples, iron tools, bricks, coins, tombs, obelisks, and advanced shipbuilding technology in the port town of Adulis. Decline: Expansion and Gradual Deterioration: Between the fourth and sixth centuries, Aksumite kings expanded territories significantly, but the kingdom gradually deteriorated due to Muslim Arab control of the Red Sea and the destruction of the port of Adulis in 702 AD. Internal Rebellion and Loss of Trade: Rebellion against King Kaleb, who had once controlled South Arabia, led to the expulsion of Aksumite governors and soldiers. Aksum lost control of the Red Sea trade, contributing to economic, political, and military decline. Southward Retreat: Unable to check rebellions from the north by the Beja people, the Ak- sumite state retreated southward to Kubar in southern Tigray by the late ninth century, taking refuge in an area predominantly inhabited by the Agaw people. Zagwe Dynasty: Foundation and Characteristics: The Zagwe dynasty, originating from the local Agaw ruling class in Lasta, was established around 1150AD by Mera Tekle Haymnot. The new capital, Adefa (later renamed Lalibela), marked a political power shift within the Aksumite Empire rather than the creation of a new kingdom. The dynasty's economy was based on agriculture, supplemented by trade through outlets like the Zeila port and the Dahlak Islands on the Red Sea coast. Architectural Achievement: 6

The Zagwe dynasty is renowned for its remarkable architectural achievement: the monolithic rock-hewn churches at Roha (Lalibela). Emperor Lalibela oversaw the construction of eleven such churches in the first half of the thirteenth century. Factors Contributing to Downfall: Succession Issues: Internal struggles among Zagwe princes for the throne, often resolved through force, hindered the establishment of a smooth succession. Opposition and Legitimacy Concerns: Strong opposition from the regions of Tigray and Amhara due to anti-Zagwe propaganda related to the legend of the Queen of Sheba and King Solomon of Israel. Zagwe kings viewed as illegitimate successors of Aksum, aiming to restore the ancient dynasty. Initiative to Overthrow: The initiative to overthrow the Zagwe dynasty came from the Amhara region, specifically led by an Amhara chief named Yekuno Amlak. Victory and “Restoration”: In 1270AD, Yekuno Amlak defeated the last Zagwe king, Yetbarek, on the battlefield. Yekuno Amlak declared himself Emperor, claiming descent from the last Aksumite king, Dil Naod, deposed by the Zagwe dynasty in 1150AD. He established the so-called "Solomonic dynasty" and used the legend of ancient Israel to legitimize his rule. Legacy: The tradition of identifying Christian kings of Ethiopia with ancient Israel persisted until 1974, with Yekuno Amlak and his successors using this ideological arm to legitimize their political power. 2.2 - South and Southwest: Bizamo, Damot, Enarya, and Gafat The Kingdom of Bizamo: Location: Southern bend of the Abbay River, opposite the present district of Wambarma in southern Gojjam. Duration: Existed until the late sixteenth century. Population: Speakers of the Omotic language family, including the present-day Shinasha ethnic group. Challenges: Constant harassment by Christian kings through slave raids, leading to a reduction in population. Mecha Oromo Arrival: Part of the population fled across the Abbay into Gojjam, while some retreated west to the lowlands, and the rest was assimilated by the Mecha Oromo. The Kingdom of Damot: Historical Significance: One of the oldest and strongest states in the Ethiopian region. Territory: Occupied western and southwestern parts of Ethiopia, including parts of present-day Beni Shangul-Gumuz, northern Shewa, and central and southern Shewa. Aksumite Period: Known for gold trade with Aksum during the Aksumite period. Zagwe Period: Maintained dominance, serving as a trading hub for Muslim and Christian communities. Exported goods such as gold, ginger, and slaves to various countries. Military Expedition: Faced a military expedition from a Zagwe king in the twelfth century, resulting in a complete defeat for the Zagwe king. 7

Reign of Motalami: Attained peak power during Motalami's reign, marked by a fierce struggle with Yekuno-Amlak over control of Shewa. Christian Influence: Motalami converted to Christianity after defeat, signaling the beginning of growing Christian influence in Damot. Annexation by Amde Seyon: Amde Seyon annexed Damot in 1316, making it a tributary of the Christian kingdom. Continued to exist until the Mecha Oromo expansion in the late sixteenth century. The Kingdom of Enarya: Location: North of the Gojeb River and west of the upper course of the Gibe River. Christian Influence: First mentioned in the documents of Christian kings toward the end of the Aksumite period. Became a tributary during Amde Seyon's reign. Trade Hub: Enarya served as a significant source of trade items, especially gold, exported to Egypt, Greece, and Rome until the sixteenth century. Oromo Resistance: Resisted the expansion of the Mecha Oromo for over a century, ultimately defeated by the Limmu clan of the Mecha Oromo, leading to assimilation. Gafat: Location: Original homeland south of the Abbay (Blue Nile) River, adjoining Damot. Unclear Status: Scanty records do not specify whether Gafat formed a "state" or "kingdom." Resource Rich: Gafat mountains provided a rich source of gold. 2.3 - Muslim Sultanates: Shoa, Hadya, Fatagar, Bali, Ifat, and Dawaro The introduction of Islam to the Horn of Africa led to the formation of Muslim states, especially along the Zeila trade route. The decline of northern Ethiopian trade, influenced by Arab control of the Red Sea and the destruction of Adulis, made Zeila a crucial port for south-eastern Ethiopi- an trade. The Sultanate of Shewa: Emergence: Founded in 896 AD by the Makhzunmite dynasty, claiming descent from the Makhzunmite clan of southern Arabia. Location: Hot lowland region to the left of the Awash River. Internal Power Struggle: Experienced internal power struggles that led to its decline. The Sultaate of Ifat: Emergence: Founded in 1285 AD by Umar Walasma, also known as the Walasma dynasty. Dominance: Became the strongest Muslim sultanate in the region, controlling the Zeila trade routes. Conflict with Christian Highland State: Faced conflict with the Christian highland state due to the competition for control over the Zeila trade. The Sultanate of Hadiya: Location: Occupied the most westerly territory among the medieval Muslim sultanates. Time of Mention: First mentioned during the reign of Amde Seyon, becoming a tributary of the Christian Kingdom. Ethnic Identity: Ancestors of the present Hadiya ethnic group were among the original settlers. Economy: Depended on mixed farming, pastoralism, and trade, particularly known for being a source of slaves. Conflict with Christian Kings: Faced opposition from Christian kings, leading to punitive expeditions and attempts to secure loyalty through political marriages. 8

Rebellion and Abandonment: Experienced rebellions, with the last rebellion during the reign of Sarsa Dengel (1563-1597), ultimately abandoned due to pressure from the expanding Mecha Oromo. The Sultanate of Bali: Emergence: The exact origin of Bali is unclear, but it is mentioned in the chronicles of Christian kings from the 14th century. The sultanate fell under the control of Amde Seyon during this period. Geographical Location: Bali occupied the southernmost territory in the Ethiopian region, surrounded by various Muslim sultanates except on the southern frontier. To the north were Dawaro and Sharka, west was Hadiya, and east was Adal. Population: The medieval population of Bali comprised various ethnic groups. The ancestors of the present Sidama ethnic group were among the settlers, and some Oromo groups occupied the highlands of Bali. Tribute to Christian Kingdom: The garad (ruler) of Bali paid tribute to the Christian Kingdom from the 14th to the 16th century. The Sultanate of Dawaro: Geographical Location: Dawaro was situated south of Shoa, bordering Ifat on the right bank of the Awash River, extending southwards to the Webi River, marking the border with Bali. Corre- sponds roughly to present-day Arsi region. Population: The ancestors of the present Sidama ethnic group settled in Dawaro, and the modern Dawro people trace their origin to this region. The Sultanate of Fatagar: Emergence: Fatagar emerged around the middle of the 13th century and was located between Lake Zway in the south and the present town of Bishoftu (Debre Zeit) in the north. Territory: The sultanate's territory included the present districts of Minjar, Shenkora, and Ada'a in Shewa. Tribute to Christian Kingdom: Fatagar became a tributary of the Christian Kingdom during the reign of Amde Seyon. It was later reduced to a province directly ruled by the Christian King- dom, becoming a central area for almost a century. These sultanates provide further insight into the complex interactions between Muslim states and the Christian Kingdom, with dynamics influenced by geography, ethnicity, and political control. 2.4 Interstate Relations - Christian Kingdom vs. Sultanate of Adal (1520s- 1559): Background: Primary sources of conflict: desire to monopolize long-distance trade and territorial expansion. Long-distance trade was a source of wealth and linked the peoples of Ethiopia, leading to competition and struggle for control over trade routes. Conflict Escalation (1529-1543): Zeila trade route initially under Muslim control, but Ifat's defeat in 1332 shifted the monopoly to the Christian kingdom. Haqadin II and Sa'adadin retreated to the Harar plateau, establishing a new Muslim resistance base. Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi emerged as a leader, mobilizing various pastoral communities for a common cause. 9

The battles were fought not only for trade routes but due to demographic pressure among pastor- alists approaching Harar and the Christian Kingdom. Imam Ahmed's Rise and Campaign (1520-1529): Imam Ahmed refused tribute in 1520, leading to a campaign against the Christian Kingdom in 1527. Adal, including territories like Bali, Dawaro, Fatagar, Sidama, Hadiya, and Kambata, came under the control of Imam Ahmed's army. Logistic and leadership issues plagued the Christian Kingdom's larger army, leading to defeat at the Battle of Shimbra Kure in 1529. By 1535, Imam Ahmed's empire stretched from Zeila to Massawa, including the Ethiopian interior. Establishment of a civil administrative bureaucracy with personnel from the Christian territories. Key Figures: Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi: Leader who mobilized pastoral communities and defeated the Christian Kingdom. Bati Del Wanbara: Wife of Imam Ahmed, actively involved in campaigns, even marching during pregnancy. Outcome: Christian Kingdom suffered military setbacks, with the reigning king, Lebne Dengel, retreating and eventually dying in 1540. Gelawdewos, Lebne Dengel's son, ascended to the throne and continued facing wars with increased intensity. International Dimensions of the War (1520s-1563): Portuguese and Ottoman Turkish Interventions: Conflict in Ethiopia gained an international dimension with the involvement of foreign powers: Portugal and Ottoman Turkey. Portugal sought trade routes to the Far East after the Ottoman Turks blocked the traditional land route from Europe. They established trading stations along the eastern coasts of Africa and were interested in the Gulf of Aden and Red Sea coasts. The Ottoman Turkish Empire, already in control of Arabia and Egypt, supported Imam Ahmed against the Christian Kingdom. Imam Ahmed received Turkish support in the form of two hundred Muslim musketeers and ten cannons in 1540. 2.5 Portuguese and Ottoman Turkish Influence: Four hundred Portuguese soldiers arrived in the Christian court in 1541, led by Christopher da Gama. In 1542, the Christian army, including Portuguese soldiers, suffered a defeat in Ofla, resulting in about two hundred Portuguese casualties. Lebne-Dengel's wife, Seblewongel, participated in the war in 1542. Battle of Woyna-Dega (1543): Emperor Gelawdewos prepared for the final confrontation with the support of Seble-Wongel, Queen's mother. Hit-and-run strategy employed by the Christian Kingdom severely affected Imam Ahmed's army. On February 25, 1543, Imam Ahmed was killed in the battle of Woyna-Dega. Aftermath and Consequences: 10

Gelawdewos restored possession of northern and central plateau areas after Imam Ahmed's death. Muslim communities in the highlands submitted to Gelawdewos, who promoted tolerance for national conciliation. Gelawdewos faced challenges from retreating soldiers of the Sultanate of Adal, Ottoman Turks, Jesuit interlude, and advancing Oromo. Continued Conflicts (1559-1563): Emir Nur Ibn al-Waazir Mujahid led forces of Adal against Emperor Minas (r.1559-1563), killing the king in 1559. Emperor Minas reclaimed territories on the coast, but conflicts with Yishaq and Turks persisted in the early 1560s. Sartsa-Dengle (r.1563-1598) defended against Turks while facing challenges from various groups, including Agaw, Gumuz, Bete-Israel, Sidama, Ennarya, and Oromo. Emperor Sartsa-Dengle marched to the north, defeated Turkish forces, and restored territories. Consequences and Interactions: Huge human and material costs resulted from the Muslim-Christian conflict. Weakening of both the Muslim Sultanate and the Christian Kingdom facilitated the success of the Oromo population movement. Cultural interactions, linguistic exchanges, and intermarriages occurred among peoples, paving the way for socio-economic and cultural interactions in Ethiopia. Trade served as a major channel of social integration, fostering friendship, interaction, interdependence, and conflict among the region's states. Economic interdependence strengthened socio- economic bonds between Muslim sultanates and the Christian Kingdom. Global Dimension: Competition for supremacy over the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean between Portugal and Otto- man Turks gave the conflict a global dimension. Trade continued to be a major channel for socio-economic and cultural interactions, forming the foundation for modern Ethiopia. 2.6 Population Movements, Expansion, and Integration in Ethiopia (Late 15th to 17th Century): Lowland Inhabitants and Population Movements: Lowland regions of Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa were inhabited by Afar, Oromo, Somali, Saho, and other Cushitic language family speakers. Military conflicts between Christian kingdoms and the Sultanate of Adal in the late 15th and early 16th centuries, along with demographic pressure, led to population movements among the Argoba, Afar, and Somali. Argoba: Argoba played a significant role in Islamic expansion, trade, and the formation of Muslim states in the Horn. The sultanates of Shewa and Ifat were established with Makhzumite and Walasma Dynasties, respectively. Argoba joined Afar and Somali against the Christian Kingdom during the wars of Imam Ahmed al-Ghazi. 11

Conflicts and rivalry between Christians and Muslims led to the destruction of sultanates and dispersion of the Argoba people. Afar: Afar population movements were influenced by drought and competition between Christian kingdoms and Muslim sultanates to control trade routes. Afar's pastoral economy helped them survive the destructive effects of wars in the 16th century. Somali: Somali territories were part of the competition for control over trade routes.Demographic pressure and the wars of Imam Ahmed al-Ghazi contributed to the population movement of the So- mali. Oromo: The Oromo, an indigenous Cushitic people, were originally located in the south-central part of Ethiopia's highlands. Oromo population movement and expansion occurred between 1522 and 1618, influenced by factors like demographic pressure and conflicts between Christian kingdoms and Muslim sultanates.Oromo were divided into Barentu and Borana confederacies, with various clans under each.Movement took place in two stages: a small and slow movement in the first half of the 16th century, followed by a large-scale movement using force from the mid-16th century to 1618.The Oromo established Gadaa centers during their expansion, contributing to the success of their movement. Success of Oromo Population Movement: The Gadaa system provided training and military organization, contributing to the success of the Oromo movement. Use of horses and adaptation to circumstances facilitated the Oromo expansion. Oromo expansion occurred when the Sultanate of Adal was weakened due to conflicts in the first half of the 16th century. Consequences and Changes: Oromo population movement brought about ethnic and cultural intermixing in the Ethiopian region. Old states like Damot, Bizamo, and Ennarya were destroyed, and their peoples assimilated or forced to move. The Christian kingdom's territorial and financial strengths were weakened, leading to a shift in the political center. The Sultanate of Adal was reduced to the walled town of Harar, marking the end of the age-old conflict with the Christian kingdom. Oromo became largely sedentary agriculturists, adopting both Christianity and Islam over time, and later forming their own kingdoms in the Ethiopian region. 12

Chapter Three: The Modern World since 1500 3.1 The Renaissance: The Renaissance, an intellectual movement, marked a "rebirth" of learning from the 14th to the 17th century. It began in Italy and spread to Europe, emphasizing individual ability, freedom of thought, and the use of vernacular languages. Characteristics included the study of ancient Rome and Greek, support for freedom of thought, and the use of national languages. Outstanding figures produced great works in literature (e.g., Dante, More, Cervantes, Luther, Shakespeare), arts (e.g., da Vinci, Michelangelo), and science (e.g., Vesalius, Copernicus). The Renaissance influenced modern society, culture, and artistic expression, emphasizing humanism and challenging church-dominated ideas. 3.2 The Age of Explorations and Discoveries: It occurred in the 15th and 16th centuries, driven in part by the need to bypass the Ottoman blockade of the old trade route to the Far East. Factors encouraging exploration included European interest in trade, new inventions like the compass, better maps and ships, and growing geographical knowledge. Portugal's Prince Henry the Navigator and Spain's Queen Isabella sponsored explorations for economic, religious, and glory purposes. Spain and Portugal were leaders, followed by Holland, Britain, France, and Russia. Vasco da Gama discovered a sea route to India in 1498; Columbus reached America in 1492; Magellan circumnavigated the world (1519-1522). Economic impacts included profits from local trade networks and the development of capitalism through colonial conquests. The "New World" became known as America, named after the mapmaker Amerigo Vespucci. Exploration and colonial conquests enhanced the globalizing process and contributed to the development of capitalism. This chapter explores the intellectual flourishing of the Renaissance and the transformative impact of European explorations and discoveries on global trade and the development of capitalism. 3.3 - The English Bourgeois Revolution: Context: Queen Elizabeth I's death in 1603 marked the end of the Tudor dynasty. James VI of Scotland became James I of England and Ireland, beginning the Stuart dynasty's rule. England and Scotland remained separate entities until the Act of Union in 1707, creating Great Britain. Political Structure: The English monarchy, under the Tudors, was strong but not absolute. No regular, professional army; relied on cooperation from nobles, gentry, and bourgeoisie. 13

The economy was less advanced compared to the Dutch, leaders in 17th-century merchant capitalism. The monarchy depended on a representative national assembly called parliament for law and taxation approval. Parliament Structure: Parliament comprised the unelected House of Lords (nobles, archbishops, bishops) and the elected House of Commons (representing the people). The House of Commons elections were not fully democratic, involving only a subset of adult males. Gentry and a few bourgeois figures were elected as members of Parliament in the House of Commons. Charles I's Reign (1625-1649): Conflict arose between Charles I and Parliament, primarily concerning foreign policy, finances, and religion. Expensive wars against Spain and France led to criticism of the king and financial difficulties. Charles faced issues with taxation, collecting money without parliamentary approval. Religious tensions rose due to suspicions that Charles and his Catholic queen were moving away from Protestantism. Breakdown of Cooperation: Parliament did not meet from 1629 to 1640. Charles ruled without parliament, collecting money in ways perceived as illegal. The period (1629-1640) marked Charles ruling like an absolute monarch, leading to growing discontent and tension. This section sets the stage for the escalating conflicts between Charles I and Parliament, laying the foundation for the English Bourgeois Revolution. "Beginning of the Revolution" Context: The revolutionary crisis in England began in Scotland when Charles I imposed the Church of England Prayer Book without consulting the Scots in 1637. Charles called the English Parliament to obtain funds to suppress the Scottish rebellion but faced opposition. Short Parliament and Long Parliament: The Short Parliament (April–May 1640) refused to approve taxation, leading to its quick dissolu- tion. The Long Parliament (November 1640–1653) was named for its prolonged duration. Initial Unity and Division: Initially, the Long Parliament members united against the king, imposing laws limiting his powers. Parliament later divided, with a majority wanting to curtail all royal powers, while a minority feared growing radicalism and supported the king. Conflict Escalation: The conflict intensified after the rebellion in Ireland, with Parliament demanding control over an army, which the king refused. The king's failed attempt to arrest parliamentary opposition members and subsequent departure to raise an army marked the start of the Civil War in 1640. 14

First Civil War (1642-1646): Parliamentarians, based in London, gained support from Scotland. The Royalists initially performed well but were eventually defeated by Parliament's New Model Army led by Thomas Fairfax and Oliver Cromwell. Post-War Settlement: The challenge was to achieve a political settlement involving the king, Parliament, and the army. Negotiations failed, leading to the Second Civil War in 1648, initiated by a Royalist invasion. Second Civil War and Execution of Charles I: Charles attempted military victory but failed, leading to his arrest and the exclusion of dissenting Parliament members. A show trial resulted in Charles I's public execution in January 1649, marking the end of the monarchy. Commonwealth and Cromwell's Rule: The House of Lords was abolished, and England declared a republic called the Commonwealth. Cromwell ruled until his death in 1658, maintaining order but suppressing the Leveller movement. Post-Cromwell Era: After Cromwell's death, the Ruling classes desired the restoration of the monarchy for stability. In 1660, Charles II, son of Charles I, returned in an event known as the Restoration. Restoration and Charles II: The Restoration brought back the monarchy, the House of Lords, and the state Church of Eng- land. Charles II ruled with parliamentary and aristocratic support. James II and the Glorious Revolution: James II succeeded Charles II but faced suspicions of undermining the Church of England and establishing absolute monarchy. William of Orange, invited by conspirators, arrived with a Dutch army in 1688, leading to the Glorious Revolution. This section outlines the sequence of events from the beginning of the revolutionary crisis in Scotland to the Restoration and the subsequent challenges during James II's rule, ultimately leading to the Glorious Revolution. Parliamentary Supremacy and the Bill of Rights In 1689, when King William III and Queen Mary became joint rulers of England, Parliament presented to them a declaration that became known as the Bill of Rights. This famous document assured the people certain basic civil rights. It stands with Magna Carta and the Petition of Rights as the legal guarantees of English liberty. The Bill of Rights listed certain rights that were the ―true, ancient, and indubitable rights and liberties of the people‖ of the English Kingdom. It settled the succession to the throne. It also made it illegal for the king to keep a standing army, to levy taxes without Parliament’s approval, or to be a Roman Catholic. 15

3.4 The French Revolution Introduction to the Old Regime: The period from the mid-17th century to 1789 in France was known as the Old Regime. The government was an absolute monarchy with no constitution. Society was divided into three estates: clergy, nobility, and the third estate (comprising bourgeoisie, petty bourgeoisie, wage workers, and peasants). Causes of the French Revolution: Increasing criticism of absolute monarchy and unjust privileges. Economic expansion led to a growing bourgeoisie dissatisfied with its inferior position. Criticism of oppressive taxation and feudal dues faced by peasants. Immediate Cause - American War of Independence: France's participation in the American War of Independence (1778-83) influenced by returning officers with ideas of liberty. Economic strain due to war expenses led to financial crisis by 1788. Stages-General and the Tennis Court Oath: The government announced the convening of the States-General, a national representative assembly. The 3rd estate, representing the majority, declared itself a National Assembly on June 17, 1789, and took the Tennis Court Oath on June 20, 1789. Fall of Bastille and Abolition of Feudalism: On July 14, 1789, the people of Paris captured the Bastille, marking the symbolic end of absolute monarchy. August 4, 1789, saw the National Assembly abolishing feudal dues, Church tax (tithe), and all forms of privilege. Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen: On August 26, 1789, the National Assembly declared the political principles for the new constitution. Emphasized the people's sovereignty, equality in rights, and civil liberties like freedom of speech and religion. October 1789 and the Constitutional Monarchy: In October 1789, Parisian crowds forced the king and his family back to Paris. The new constitution of 1791 established a constitutional monarchy, but voting rights were limited to "active citizens." Wars, Radicalization, and Jacobin Rule: France entered war against Austria and Prussia in 1792, leading to internal and external challenges. On August 10, 1792, the monarchy was overthrown, leading to the Convention replacing the Legislative Assembly. Emergence of political parties: Jacobins (radicals) and Girondins (moderates). The Reign of Terror: Economic problems, counter-revolution, and external threats prompted the rise of the Jacobins. The Jacobins ruled France through the Committee of Public Safety and implemented the Reign of Terror to crush opposition. Economic measures and mass conscription were used to stabilize the situation. Downfall of the Jacobins and Rise of Napoleon: 16

Jacobin dictatorship faced internal dissent and external pressures. In July 1794, the Convention turned against the Jacobins, leading to the arrest and execution of Robespierre and others. The Convention adopted a new constitution in 1795, establishing the Directory, which proved unstable and corrupt. Napoleon's Rise to Power: In November 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte overthrew the Directory in a military coup. The French Revolution brought democratic ideals, ended royal rule, abolished serfdom and slavery, and laid the foundation for a unified state. The Revolution's impact spread beyond France, influencing the ideals of liberty and equality throughout Europe. The Napoleonic Era (1799-1815) and Its Consequences Napoleon's Background and Rise to Power: Napoleon Bonaparte was born in Corsica in 1769 and received a military education. Rose to prominence through military victories, particularly against the English and Spanish during the revolution. Led successful campaigns in Italy but faced setbacks in Egypt, returned to France as a hero. Overthrow of the Directory and Establishment of Consulate: In 1799, Napoleon overthrew the Directory and proclaimed himself First Consul, establishing a new constitution. The government outwardly remained a republic but functioned as a military dictatorship with real power in Napoleon's hands. Expansion of the French Empire: During the Consulate (1799-1804), Napoleon displayed military and governmental genius. Defeated an alliance against France and extended control over Germany, Italy, Belgium, and parts of Yugoslavia. Declared himself Emperor of the French in 1804. Challenges and Conflicts: Faced challenges from British naval power, and alliances against France, including Austria, Russia, and Sweden. Napoleon's rule led to discontent in conquered territories due to forced contributions, conscription, and plundering of art. Invasion of Russia and Decline: In 1812, Napoleon invaded Russia but faced the spirit of the Russian people and harsh winter conditions. Suffered a disastrous retreat, leading to rebellions and defeats in Portugal, Spain, and Germany. In 1813, faced a significant defeat in the Battle of Leipzig. Exile to Elba and the Hundred Days: After his defeat in 1814, Napoleon was exiled to the island of Elba. Escaped in 1815, returned to France, and regained control for the Hundred Days. Final Defeat at Waterloo and Exile to St. Helena: Defeated at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 by British and Prussian forces. Exiled to the remote island of St. Helena, where he died in 1821. Napoleon's Impact on France: 17

While in power, Napoleon aimed to bring law and order to replace the chaos of the revolution. Established a centralized government, improved tax collection, and invested in infrastructure. Created the Code Napoleon, a legal code that incorporated revolutionary freedoms. Developed a public education system under central government supervision. Reached an agreement with the pope in 1801, making the Catholic Church the established Church of France under government control. Legacy: Napoleon's rule had a lasting impact on France's legal, educational, and administrative systems. The Code Napoleon influenced legal systems in various European countries. Despite initial positive changes, discontent arose due to military conscription, forced contributions, and Napoleon's imperial ambitions. 3.5 American War of Independence Background and Establishment of Colonies: The American Revolution, also known as the U.S. War of Independence, took place between 1775 and 1783. Thirteen British North American colonies sought independence from British rule to establish the sovereign United States of America. European colonization in the "New World" had begun since Columbus's discovery in 1492. Formation of Thirteen Colonies: Between 1607 and 1682, the British successfully established thirteen colonies in North America. Causes of the Revolution: The British imposed heavy taxation on the colonists, leading to discontent. The First Continental Congress convened in Philadelphia to address grievances and adopted non- importation and non-consumption agreements. In 1775, the Congress established the Army of the United Colonies with George Washington as Commander-in-Chief. Declaration of Independence: In 1776, representatives from the thirteen colonies met in Philadelphia and declared themselves independent. Thomas Jefferson drafted the Declaration of Independence on July 14, 1776, justifying rebellion and announcing the birth of the USA. The document emphasized the philosophy of human freedom, influencing the Western world. Victory and Constitutional Convention: In 1783, the British government accepted defeat. The Constitutional Convention of 1787 faced challenges, and the Constitution was ratified on June 25, 1788, uniting federalists and anti-federalists. Impact on World History: The American War of Independence inspired other nations, contributing to the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789. Latin American countries, influenced by the American example, started raising arms against their colonial masters, Spain and Portugal. Establishment of the United States: In March 1789, elections were held for the presidency, and George Washington became the first President of the USA. 18

The war did not abolish slavery or consider Native Americans as citizens but marked a significant step toward creating the United States of America. Legacy: The American War of Independence had a profound impact on world history, influencing revolutionary movements and inspiring nations seeking independence from colonial rule. It laid the foundation for the creation of the United States of America, which experienced rapid industrial development in the following years. 3.6 The Industrial Revolution and Its Consequences Origin and Spread of Industrial Revolution: The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain in the late 1700s and gradually spread globally. It involved new manufacturing processes in Europe and the United States between the 18th and 19th centuries. Prior to the Industrial Revolution, economic needs were met through farming and handmade production. Transition to Mechanized Production: The Industrial Revolution marked a shift from hand production to the use of machinery. Cloth-making moved from homes to large factories, powered by coal and iron resources in Britain. Capitalism's consolidation resulted from the technological shift towards machine-driven large-scale production. Role of Technology and Characteristics of Capitalism: Technology, such as the steam engine, played a significant role in the rise of industrial capitalism. Characteristics of capitalism included capital accumulation, competitive markets, private property, voluntary exchange, and wage labor. New technologies like the telephone, typewriter, and electricity supported business operations. Impact on Britain and Global Influence: Britain became the world's workshop by the 19th century. Industrialization and technological advancements, including railways, connected vast continental spaces politically, culturally, and economically. The political structure changed with the growing power of industrial monopolies. Social Changes: Socially, the Industrial Revolution led to the growth of cities and the emergence of new social classes: bourgeoisie and proletariat. The bourgeoisie owned means of production, while the proletariat sold their labor. Class differences and disparities in living conditions emerged, impacting society. Economic Transformation: Economically, the Industrial Revolution transformed agriculture and handicrafts into large-scale industry and mechanized manufacturing. Positive outcomes included increased wealth, production, and improved standards of living. Negative Effects: Negative consequences of the Industrial Revolution included environmental degradation, poor sanitation, spread of diseases, pollution, poor working conditions, and low wages. Child labor was prevalent, representing a cheap supply of labor. Overall Impact: The Industrial Revolution brought both positive economic advancements and negative societal consequences, shaping the course of modernization and industrial development. 19

Chapter Four 4.1 The Gondarine Period and Its Socio-Economic and Political Development Historical Context: The Gondar period refers to the era during which the rulers of the highland Christian Kingdom shifted their political center to Gondar from the Shewan highlands. The shift was driven by threats from Adal and the movement of the Oromo population. Establishment of Gondar: Gondar was founded by Fasiladas around 1636 and strategically located on a trade route. It served as a permanent capital, ending the tradition of ruling from temporary camps. Gondar became known for its architectural achievements, including castles, churches, bridges, and swimming pools. Prosperity and Technological Developments: Under rulers like Fasiladas, Yohanes I, and Iyasu I, Gondar experienced prosperity and technological advancements. The city grew, traditional schools were built, and urban features developed. Gondar's population reached about 70,000, composed of diverse religious, cultural, and foreign communities. Urban-Rural Interactions and Commercial Center: Gondar became an important commercial center with a daily market attracting merchants and rural people. The city witnessed intense urban-rural interactions. Occupational groups like the Jeberti (Ethiopian Muslims) and the Bete Israel (craftsmen) played key roles in the economy. Decline and Political Disorder: Gondar's decline as a political center and economic prosperity occurred due to political disorder and social unrest. Court intrigues, assassinations, and poisoning of kings and princes became common. The monarchy weakened militarily and struggled to control regional lords and provinces. Rise of Itege Mentewab and Warlords: Itege Mentewab, wife of Emperor Bakafa, played a significant role during the declining stage of Gondar. Warlords contended for power, and Ras Michael Sehul took control after Mentewab lost power in 1769. Internal splits within the Ethiopian Orthodox Church and conflicts among the clergy further contributed to the decline. Zemene Mesafint - Era of Warlords: The combination of political and religious disputes led to the Zemene Mesafint, known as the Era of warlords. The period was characterized by power struggles, internal conflicts, and the dominance of regional warlords. The Gondarine period, initially marked by prosperity and architectural achievements, ultimately faced decline due to internal conflicts, political disorder, and the rise of powerful warlords, leading to the Zemene Mesafint. 20

4.2 The Jesuit and Their Evangelization in Ethiopia Background: Early contacts between the Christian Kingdom and Portugal led to military assistance against Imam Ahmad Ibrahim in 1541. The Portuguese soldiers, staying in Ethiopia, invited Catholic missionaries, known as Jesuits, to convert the Orthodox Christians to Catholicism. Conversion Attempts: Libne Dingil's letter of 1535 did not explicitly mention conversion intentions, but later claims suggested promises of conversion. Jesuit bishops, particularly Bermudez, tried to force Gelawdewos, the Ethiopian emperor, into fulfilling alleged promises. Gelawdewos, aware of his father's alleged promises, rejected conversion demands. Early Jesuit Efforts: The first attempt at appointing a patriarch and bishops from the Jesuits occurred after Gelawdewos requested Catholic priests for Portuguese soldiers. Gelawdewos objected to the plan, leading to conflicts between Jesuits and the Orthodox Church. The period after Bermudez's retirement saw the official appointment of Jesuit patriarchs and bishops. Paez's Success: Bishop Paez arrived in 1603 and successfully converted many influential figures, including King Suseniyos (1607 - 1632). Paez used political leverage, advising kings on gaining Portuguese military assistance in exchange for conversion. Conflicts and Rebellion: Attempts to impose Catholicism led to civil wars and rebellions. Suseniyos officially converted to Catholicism in 1622, facing strong opposition from the Church, clergy, and peasants. Large-scale peasant uprisings occurred, defending Orthodox Christianity against Catholicism. Suseniyos' Realization and Withdrawal: Suseniyos, realizing the failure of Catholic conversion and the absence of expected Portuguese assistance, decided to withdraw. In 1632, he abdicated in favor of his son Fasiledes, who restored the Orthodox Church to its traditional position. Many Catholic converts were killed, and Jesuit missionaries were expelled from the country. Consequences and Isolation: Theological controversies within the Orthodox Church resulted from the conflict with Roman Catholicism. Fasiledes adopted a closed-door policy, suspecting all European Christians as Catholics. The Christian kingdom isolated itself from Christian Europeans for about two centuries. Foreign Relations: Fasiledes formed alliances with traditionally hostile Muslim neighbors to prevent European interference. The Christian kingdom maintained a closed-door policy, allowing only two Europeans, Jacques Poncet and James Bruce, to reach the court during the period of isolation. 21

4.3 The Ascendancy of the Yejju Dynasty After the defeat of Michael Sehul, chaos persisted until Ali Gwangul (Ali I) from the Yejju Oromo family established the Yejju dynasty in 1786. This dynasty held political dominance in northern Ethiopia, particularly in territories like Gojjam, Gondar, Tigrai, and Wollo, acting in the name of puppet kings in Gonder. Key points during the ascendancy of the Yejju dynasty: Foundation of the Yejju Dynasty: Ali Gwangul (Ali I or Ali Talaq) founded the Yejju dynasty in 1786, also known as Warra Sheh. The dynasty's center of power was at Debre-Tabor during the Zemen-Mesafint. Ras Gugsa's Rule (1803-1825): Ras Gugsa, the strongest ruler of the Yejju dynasty, strengthened the dynasty's power through diplomatic and military strategies. He faced resistance from Tigrian rulers Ras Walda Sellase and Dejjazmach Sabagadis but managed to neutralize them through marriage relations and diplomacy. Challenges and Battles: After Gugsa's death in 1825, the Yejju dynasty faced challenges from Semen and Tigrai. Ras Yemam (1825-1828) succeeded Gugsa and defeated Semen. Ras Marye took over in 1828, but Dajjach Sabagadis of Tigrai sought to end Yejju political domination. The battle in 1831 near Dabra Abay resulted in victory for the Yejju dynasty, ending the Zemen- Mesafint period. Continued Dominance under Ras Ali Alula (Ali II): Ras Ali Alula (Ali II) ruled from 1831 to 1853, maintaining Yejju political dominance. Gugsa Marso (r. 1803-1825) and his successor, Yimam (r. 1825-1828), played crucial roles in battles against rivals. End of Zemene Mesafint: Kasa Hailu of Qwara, through battles in the 1840s to 1855, brought an end to the Zemene Mesafint. The period of the Yejju dynasty's ascendancy featured a mix of diplomatic strategies, military conflicts, and political maneuvering in the complex political landscape of northern Ethiopia. Decadence with the Ruling House and the Zemene Mesafint Power Struggle in Gondar (1767-1769): A power struggle unfolded in Gondar between Wollo and Quara political factions from 1767 to 1769. Wollo, represented by Wabi, gradually gained influence, leading to political disorder around the capital. Itege Mentewab, from Quara, initially held control but faced challenges to her power. Rise of Ras Michael Sehul (1769): Mentewab sought the help of Ras Michael Sehul of Tigrai to restore order in Gondar. Ras Michael Sehul became a powerful figure, awarded the title of Ras Bitweded. He refused to return to Tigrai, ultimately assassinating King Iyoas in 1769, marking the start of a new era. Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855): 22

The Zemene-Mesafint period began, characterized by the dominance of regional lords over centralized power. Ras Michael Sehul played a pivotal role, taking measures against the nobility, but was defeated in 1771. Chaos persisted until the rise of Ali Gwangul (Ali I) from the Yejju Oromo family, establishing the Yejju dynasty in 1786. Objectives of Zemene Mesafint Lords: Regional warlords during the Zemene Mesafint sought to expand territories, gain the title of Ras Bitweded, and collect tribute. Religious conflicts within the Orthodox Church added complexity, further intensifying power struggles. Impact on Society and Economy: Zemene Mesafint wars negatively impacted social and economic life. Peasantry suffered from frequent wars, feeding armies and bandits, leading to decreased agricultural production. Farmlands became battlefields, villages were destroyed, and trade routes were disrupted, affecting the development of trade. Natural products like ivory, gold, and civet, along with enslaved people, were key trade items during this period. Undermining Nationalism: The continuous wars of the Zemene Mesafint undermined the sense of nationalism. The weak national feeling and power characterized this period, marked by regional conflicts and power struggles. The Zemene Mesafint era brought about a significant shift in the political landscape, with regional lords playing a central role, impacting various aspects of Ethiopian society and economy. 4.4 polities of Shoa, Omo, and the Gibe Regions, the Emirate of Harar, and Sheikhdom of Assosa" Omotic States and Languages: The Omo river basin was home to various peoples and states speaking Omotic languages. About thirty different languages, collectively known as Omotic languages, were classified under the Omotic family. Key languages included Kaffa, Walayita, Dawuro, Bench, Dorze Gamo, Gofa, Koyra, Yem, Sheka, and Maji. Kingdom of Kaffa: Located south of the Gojeb river, the Kingdom of Kaffa had a history dating back to the fourteenth century. Two important dynasties, Matto and Minjo, played crucial roles in Kaffa's history. Notable kings of the 19th century included Gahe Nhchochi, Kawe Erochi, Kaji Sharochi, Gali Sarochi (Galito), and Gaki Sharochi. Kaffa had an efficient frontier defense system with watchtowers and drum signals. The economy was agriculture-based, with peasants paying taxes in produce, including musk. 23

Trade items included coffee, ivory, musk, slaves, and gold. Kaffa was known for its coffee production. Incorporated into the Ethiopian Empire in 1897 after Menelik's expansion. Kingdom of Yem: Yem, an Omotic state on the western bank of the Gibe river, existed since the fourteenth century. The Mowa dynasty ruled Yem in the 19th century, with kings holding the title "ano." Hierarchical administration with a king, council of officials (astesor), and officials in provinces and subprovinces. Economy based on agriculture, with tributes paid directly to the king. Trade and handicrafts were auxiliary activities. Conquered by Menelik in 1894. Kingdom of Wolaita: The Kingdom of Walayita had connections with the medieval state of Damot and was founded by Motalami. The Walayita Malla dynasty, established in the early 14th century, was later replaced by the Tigre dynasty. Expanded territory towards the south and west. Economy based on agriculture, and the king had absolute power. Conquered by Menelik II in 1894. Kingdom of Sheka: Located east of Baro and west of Gojeb Rivers, Sheka had two ruling dynasties: Batto and Bushasho. Bushasho dynasty ruled from the end of the 16th to the 19th centuries. Introduced to Christianity in the late 16th century. Sheka had a close economic, political, and historical relationship with Enarya, Kaffa, and Anfillo. Recognized kings in the 19th century were Bedi Nechochi, Tachi Nechechi, Gali Goechi, Deji Goechi, and Techi Goechi. Other Omotic States: Besides the mentioned states, there were other Omotic states like Dawuro, Konta, Gamo, and Gofa. The Omotic states in the Omo river basin had rich histories, diverse languages, and distinctive socio-political structures, contributing to the cultural tapestry of Ethiopia. Oromo Monarchies in the Gibe Valley in the 19th Century: In the 19th century, the Oromo people in the Gibe Valley underwent a significant political transformation, transitioning from the traditional gada system to a monarchical system of government. Several factors contributed to this transformation: Contact with Omotic States: The Oromo of the Gibe Valley came into contact with Omotic states that had a longstanding tradition of monarchical government. 4.5 Oromo Expansion and System Impact: The expansion of the Oromo into a wider area affected the gada system, which worked well in smaller groups. Long-Distance Trade and Islam: Long-distance trade and the spread of Islam undermined the power of the gada government. 24

Frequent Wars and Rise of Influential Individuals: Frequent wars led to the emergence of powerful individuals, such as the Abba dulas, who became influential. The emergence of monarchical states among the Oromo in the Gibe Valley took place around the early 19th century, and these states collectively became known as the "Gibe monarchies." The notable ones included: Limu-Enarya: Limu-Enarya was the earliest of the Gibe monarchies, built on the ruins of the medieval kingdom of Enarya/Hinnario. It reached its height of power during the reign of Abba-Bagibo or Ibsa (1825-1861) but declined later. Jimma Kaka succeeded Limu-Enarya, gaining power and controlling trade routes in the region. Gera, Goma, and Guma: Three Oromo kingdoms—Gera, Goma, and Guma—emerged to the west and southwest of Jimma, all located along trade routes. Leqa Neqemt and Leqa Qellam in Wollega: Leqa Neqemt: founded by Bakare Godana, reached its height of power during the reigns of Moroda and Kumsa. Kumsa, later baptized as Gebre Igzeber, maintained local autonomy during Menelik's territorial expansion. Leqa Qellam: founded by Tullu, became powerful during the rule of his son Jote Tullu, with wealth from cross-frontier gold trade and trade with neighboring Shiekdoms of Aqoldy and Bela Shangul. The Gibe Valley witnessed a complex interplay of historical developments, including economic factors, trade routes, and interactions with neighboring regions, shaping the political landscape of the Oromo monarchies in the 19th century. The Emirates of Harar and the Wall around the City Establishment of the Harar Emirate: In the 15th and 16th centuries, the Sultanate of Adal was a powerful state with Harar as its center. Oromo pressure led to the shift of Adal's center to Aussa in 1577, resulting in the emergence of the Harar Emirate. Emir Ali Dawud declared the independence of the Harar Emirate in the mid-17th century. Economic Prosperity and Trade: Harar became a vital trade center, strategically located between trade routes from the northern Somali Coasts to the interior of Ethiopia. Economic interdependence between Harari, Oromos, and Somalis led to broader interactions. The fertile territories around Harar produced agricultural products, coffee, and chat, forming major exports. Construction of the Wall: Harar was surrounded by a stone wall built by Emir Nur, successor to Ahmed Gragn, in response to Oromo pressure. Initially, the city isolated itself, allowing limited contact through controlled gate openings for trade purposes. 25

Over time, security measures were relaxed, facilitating free movement and interaction between Harari and neighboring communities. Cultural and Religious Significance: Harar was an early center of Islam in the Ethiopian region. The city served as a center for Islamic religious study and training, boasting mosques, shrines, and well-developed handicrafts. Foreign Relations: Harar maintained economic and political ties with Yemen and the Arabian Peninsula. The city hosted a diverse population, including Arabs, Persians, Turks, Armenians, and Greeks. European entry was restricted, and foreigners were often imprisoned or killed, but Sir Richard Burton's visit in 1855 revealed the city's wealth and strategic importance. Egyptian Occupation and Ethiopian Conquest: In 1875, the ruler of Egypt, Khedive Isma'il, sent an expedition led by Mohammed Rauf Pasha to occupy Harar. After ten years, the Egyptian army withdrew in 1885. Menelik II of Shewa defeated the last Emir, Abdullahi, in 1887, ending the independent existence of Harar. Harar and its surroundings were incorporated into the Ethiopian Empire. Harar's rich history, economic prosperity, and cultural significance played a pivotal role in the dynamics of the region, ultimately leading to its incorporation into the Ethiopian Empire in the late 19th century. Sheikdoms along the Ethio-Sudan Border in the 19th Century Muslim Sheikdoms: During the 19th century, there were Muslim states or sheikdoms situated along the Ethiopia- Sudan border. Notable sheikdoms included Asosa (Aqoldi), Beni Shangul, and Khoosha. Factors for the Rise of Sheikdoms: The primary factors contributing to the rise of these Muslim states were the influence of Islam and border trade. The region was rich in gold and other natural resources, attracting the interest of the Sudanese (Mahdists) and Egyptians. Economic Importance: The region's wealth in gold was a significant economic driver and played a key role in the attention it received from external powers. External Interests: The Sudanese (Mahdists) and Egyptians sought to control the region due to its economic significance. However, their attempts to control the area ultimately failed. Incorporation into Menelik's Empire: The entire region, including the sheikdoms, was incorporated into Menelik's Ethiopian Empire in the 1880s and 1890s. Menelik II's expansion efforts brought these sheikdoms under Ethiopian rule, ending external influences and establishing Ethiopian control over the border region. 26

The incorporation of these sheikdoms into Menelik's Empire marked a significant geopolitical change in the region, leading to the consolidation of Ethiopian authority along the Ethiopia- Sudan border. Growth of Shewan Autonomy and Interaction with Europeans Establishment of Shawa: Shawa was founded in 1695 by Negasi Kirstos, a local aristocrat, with Menz as its core area. Successive rulers expanded Shawa into neighboring Oromo and Gurage territories. Autonomy from Gondar: Shawa, geographically distant from Gondar (center of the Christian kingdom), ceased paying tribute to Gondar from the mid-18th century. Shawa became virtually independent from Gonderian rule. Reign of Shale Selassie: Shale Selassie (r. 1813-1847) adopted the title Negus and organized an effective administrative system with nine provinces. Economic base: Agriculture and trade contributed to the wealth and stability of the kingdom. Territorial expansions provided access to ivory, coffee, gold, civet cat, and slaves, important for obtaining firearms. European Interactions: European interest grew during Shale Selassie's reign. Missionaries Isenberg and Krapf, along with French chemist Rochet d'Hericourt, approached Shawa. W.C. Harris, a British envoy, secured a formal treaty between Britain and Shawa in 1841. Rochet d’Heircourt signed a treaty of commerce and friendship with Shawa on behalf of the French government in 1843. Foreign contacts helped Shale Selassie obtain firearms for territorial expansion. Decline of Autonomy: Shale Selassie's death in 1847 marked the end of Shawa's autonomous existence. Emperor Tewodros II campaigned in Shawa in 1856, making it one of his provinces. King Haile Melekot, who succeeded Shale Selassie, died before Tewodros defeated Shawa in 1855. Menilik, son of Haile Melekot, escaped from Meqdella royal prison in 1865 and established power in Shawa, later shifting the capital to Ankober and then to Entoto before founding Addis Ababa 27

Chapter Five Africa and the outside World to 1900s Genesis, Development, and Consequences of Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Background to Atlantic Slave Trade: Christopher Columbus's voyages to the Americas in 1492 set the stage for large European plantations. Native Americans faced extermination or enslavement, leading to a labor shortage. Attempts to use white indentured slaves from Europe failed, prompting the idea of transporting West African natives. Phases of Atlantic Slave Trade: Piratic Slave Trade (15th Century): Individual traders engaged in capturing and transporting slaves. European governments were not officially involved. Monopolistic Slave Trade (1580s Onward): Monopolistic slave trading companies, chartered by governments, conducted organized trade. Triangular trade route facilitated the exchange of goods between the Americas, Europe, and Africa. Enormous profits were made, contributing to the industrialization of Western Europe. Free Trade (Second Half of 17th Century): In 1689, the British government instituted free trade, allowing individuals to participate. Fierce competition emerged among companies and individual traders. Horrors of the Slave Trade: African slaves faced torture at different stages, from capture to the Atlantic voyage and planta- tion life. Stripped, branded, and chained, they endured airless conditions, with up to one in six captives dying during the ocean crossing. Lifelong hardships awaited them in the American plantations. Abolition of the Slave Trade: Abolitionist movements grew in Europe, pressuring governments to end the slave trade. Great Britain, a leading abolitionist nation, abolished the trade in 1807 and urged other European nations to follow. Britain's economic interests shifted from slave trade to cheap labor, raw materials, and markets for industrial products. Consequences of the Slave Trade: Africa lost over 15 million young Africans to the Americas, depleting its most valuable human resource. Industrialization in Europe and America flooded African markets with cheap products, impacting traditional crafts. Political consequences included African chiefs acquiring firearms, intensifying internal conflicts and divisions. The weakened state of Africa contributed to its vulnerability to European colonial expansion. 28

Scramble for Africa Pre-1870 European-African Relations: Prior to 1870, Europe had trade relations with Africa, dealing in items like gold, ivory, coffee, and slaves. Capitalism's development increased the need for raw materials and markets, while the slave trade and unexplored territories hindered European goals in Africa. Initial Colonization (Before 1870): France occupied Algeria and Senegal, Britain took Cape Colony and Gold Coast, and Portugal was involved in Mozambique and Angola. Colonial powers established coastal trading posts primarily for the Atlantic slave trade. Factors Intensifying the Partition of Africa (After 1882): British takeover of Egypt in 1882, particularly after the opening of the Suez Canal, heightened British and French interest in the region. Egypt became a strategic link with the British Indian Empire and the Far East. Dual Control was established over Egypt, leading to nationalist resistance and intervention by British forces. German and Belgian involvement in colonial expansion further fueled the competition. Germany's Role: Initially, Germany entered colonial rivalry to divert France from seeking revenge after its defeat in 1870-71. However, Germany's national interest, prestige, and economic motives compelled it to continue with colonial conquest. Belgian Involvement: King Leopold II of Belgium, independently of the Belgian government, employed explorer H.M. Stanley to explore the Congo Basin. Appearance of Germany and Belgium prompted other colonial powers to move quickly into the interior of Africa. Berlin Conference (1884-85): International conference with representatives from fourteen European powers, including the USA. Lasted six months and resulted in two key resolutions: Powers needed to notify others about their territorial claims and establish "effective occupation." Resolution on the right to trade on the Congo River. Paved the way for the "legalized" partition of Africa, allowing colonialists to divide the continent without armed conflict. Outcome of Berlin Conference: Recognition of Leopold II's Congo Free State in 1884, with a promise of unrestricted freedom of trade in the Congo basin for all. 29

Colonial Rule in Africa (1883-1900) Territorial Division: France controlled Upper Niger in 1883, and France and Britain partitioned West Africa. Between 1883 and 1885, Germany occupied territories in South West Africa, Togo land, Came- roon, and East Africa. Britain expanded from South Africa to central and East Africa and southward from Egypt to control Eastern Sudan. By 1900, excluding Ethiopia, Morocco (until 1912), and Liberia, the entire African continent was virtually under European colonial rule. British Administration Policy: British colonial administration policy known as "indirect rule," attributed to Lord Frederick Lugard. Indirect rule involved governing through traditional rulers due to a shortage of administrative staff. Divide and rule strategy employed to weaken African resistance against British colonialism. French Colonial Policy: French colonial administration policy known as "direct rule," designed by Albert Sarrout. French officials filled administrative posts in the colonies. Assimilation or association policy aimed at making Africans adopt French culture and lifestyle for potential French citizenship. Other European colonial powers like Portugal, Italy, Belgium, and Spain largely preferred direct rule. 30

Unit Six Formation of the Modern State of Ethiopia (1855-1941) Attempt at Reunification Through the Use of Force, 1855-1868 Background: Ethiopia experienced a decline in imperial power during the Zamana Masafent (1769-1855) period. The kings of the Gondarine Kingdom became puppet rulers with little authority, leading to regional autonomy and conflicts. Rise of Tewodros II (Kasa Haylu): Kasa Haylu, later known as Tewodros II, emerged as a significant figure after periods of challenges and setbacks. Born to a non-royal family, he faced adversity but received church education and military training. His defeat by Egyptian troops in 1848 shaped his attitudes toward foreign policy, discipline, and modern firearms. Political marriage to Tewabech Ali and appointment as the governor of Quara aimed to appease him. Vision of Tewodros II: Tewodros II saw himself as a king destined to bring peace and relieve the people from the issues of the Zamana Masafent. His military victories fueled his sense of mission, and he adopted the throne name Tewodros. Attempt at Reunification: Tewodros embarked on a challenging project of reunification on the remains of the Zamana Masafent, using force to control regional lords.First military expeditions targeted Wollo, but local resistance persisted despite harsh campaigns.Wars with autonomous Shoa and other regions were marked by bloody encounters and harsh treatment.The attempt at centralization faced resistance, and local dynasties resisted losing traditional autonomy. Challenges and Opposition: The policy of reunification met with stiff resistance, even from former allies who rebelled against Tewodros.Local dynasties and royal appointees resisted imperial control, making centralization difficult.Tewodros treated rebellious regions harshly, contributing to a cycle of rebellion and tyranny. Church-State Conflict: Tewodros's policies, including taxing church land, led to conflict with the clergy. His reduction of priests and deacons in each church and taking away excess church land created tension. The conflict reached its peak in 1864 when Tewodros imprisoned Bishop Abuna Salama. Consequences: Tewodros faced increasing unpopularity, and the anti-Tewodros propaganda by the clergy harmed his reputation.The emperor's policies, conflicts, and harsh measures resulted in a failure to achieve political stability and effective central control. 31

Modernization and Downfall of Tewodros II (1855-1868) Modernization and Decline Tewodros II's Modernization Efforts: Tewodros aimed to build a strong modern national army and sought technical know-how for local firearm manufacturing. Frustrated in obtaining skilled personnel from Europe, he persuaded European missionaries in Ethiopia to repair firearms and manufacture cannons. The captivity of Europeans led to anxiety in Europe, and Tewodros was advised to release them, but he refused. British Expedition and Battle of Erogee: British military expedition led by Sir Robert Napier arrived in Maqdala in 1867. The Battle of Erogee in April 1868 resulted in a decisive defeat for Ethiopian forces against well- armed British troops. Tewodros, weakened by internal opposition and the defeat, committed suicide on April 13, 1868. Consequences of British Expedition: British forces looted the Maqdala treasury, taking historical relics, including the emperor's crown. General Robert Napier handed over firearms to Kasa Mercha (later Yohannes IV), who had supported the British expedition. Reforms and Legacy of Tewodros II: Tewodros initiated various reforms, including efforts to address divisions within the Church, end the slave trade, and curb social issues. He attempted to build a united and well-administered nation capable of resisting foreign aggression. His reforms faced challenges, and many did not last long, contributing to internal instability. Legacy and Successors: Tewodros left Ethiopia divided, but the idea of unification persisted. Successors Wagshum Gobaze, Ras Mekowanent Kasa Mercha (Yohannes IV), and Negus Menelik (Menelik II) vied for the throne, continuing the quest for imperial leadership. The legacy of Tewodros lies in the urgent drive of his successors to lead a united Ethiopia. 6.2 New Imperial Approach under Yohannes IV (1872-1889) 6.2.1 Reign of Takla-Giorgis (1868-71) Control of central Amhara regions, but no power over Tigray and Shoa. Defeated at the Battle of Assam in 1871 by Kasa Mercha. Kasa Mercha assumed the throne, becoming Yohannes IV. 6.2.2 Yohannes IV's Approach to Reunification Military expeditions directed against Gondar, Gojjam, Yeju, and Hamasen for submission. Temporary submissions and rebellions in some regions. Flexible and avoided repeated wars, making peace with some rebellious regions. Exemplary tolerance for regional dynasties, shared power if they recognized his overlordship. Tolerance extended to Menelik of Shoa, settled differences through the Leche Agreement in 1878. Menelik agreed to pay tribute, drop the title "king of kings," and stop independent dealings with foreigners. 32

Menelik recognized authority over Wollo, received hereditary kingship over Shoa. Yohannes and Menelik agreed to mutual assistance against common enemies. 6.2.3 Religious and Political Policies Yohannes sought complete unity in religion, ending religious divisions within the Orthodox Church at the Council of Borumeda in 1878. State support for the Karra Haymanot (Two Births) camp. Harsh policies towards Islam, ordering compulsory conversion of Muslims under the threat of persecution and property confiscation. Severity towards Ethiopian Muslims in Wollo undermined the emperor's policy of political and national unity. 6.2.4 Relations with Menelik and Control over Shoa Yohannes could not secure absolute loyalty from Menelik. Rumors of a plot involving Menelik and Takla-Haymanot against the emperor in 1888. Yohannes obtained permanent control over Shoa through Menelik's proxy. Extended control over territories in southwestern provinces of present-day Ethiopia. Lack of flexibility and liberalism in religious matters, harsh policies towards Islam, and compulsory conversion undermined political and national unity goals. 6.3 Modernization Attempt from the Post-Adwa Period to 1935 Socio-Economic Conditions: Gebbar System: Landholding peasants paying tribute, often in unpaid labor service, causing misery. Land Measurement (qalad): Alienation of land in southern regions, leading to landlessness and migration. Slave Trade and Slavery: Continuation of centuries-old practices, depopulating regions, affecting productivity. Internal and External Opposition: Abolition of slavery in 1924 and forced labor service in 1935 due to internal and external challenges. Trade and Commerce: Revival of Trade: General peace and political stability post-Adwa, encouragement by colonial powers. Shift in Trade Routes: Shoan victory at Embabo (1882) and political centrality of Shoa directed trade routes to the south. Major Trade Outlets: Djibouti, British colonies (Sudan, Kenya, Somalia), Gambella (mainly for exports). Shift in Exports: Coffee dominating over ivory and civet, changes in imports (textiles, beverag- es). Foreign Merchants: French, Indians, Greeks, Americans, Jews dominated import-export trade. Urbanization: Development of Towns: Garrison centers grew into important towns like Gore, Goba, Dire Dawa, Nazreth, and Modjo. Railway Influence: Djibouti-Addis Ababa railway encouraged trade, urbanization, and transportation. Introduction of Modern Elements: Transportation: Introduction of the motor car (1904) and the Djibouti-Addis Ababa railway (1917). 33

Communication: Telegraph and postal services before the 20th century. Industry: Opening of factories for timber, ammunition, and food processing. Medical Services: Hospital founded in 1910. Modern Education: European Missionaries and State Initiatives: Modern schools by missionaries in the late 19th century and continued by the state. Language Emphasis: French as the medium of instruction in pre-1935 schools. Ministry of Education: Established by 1930, opened schools in Addis Ababa and provinces. Abroad Education: A few Ethiopian students sent abroad for education; about 200 students finished studies in Europe (1920-1935). Intellectuals and Media: Early modern educated intellectuals called for changes, improvement in peasant conditions through outlets like the Berhanena Selam newspaper (founded in 1925). Social and Political Change: Intellectuals Advocating Change: Hakim Workineh, Professor Tamrat Amanuel, Afework Gebre Iyesus, Takala-Hawaryat Tekle Maryam, Heruy Wolde Selassie, Deressa Amante, and Gabre Hiywot Baykedagn. Call for Modernization: Demands for changes and modernization in the socio-economic order. Political Conditions Between the years 1896 and 1953, major political developments took place in the Ethiopian Empire. Initially, between 1896 and 1930, consolidation of power by the state and the ruling class were the major political pre-occupations. With that settled, between 1930 and 1935, the au- tocracy of Emperor Haile Selassie I was in full force leading to the emergence of a absolutist state in Ethiopia. Another aspect of political developments concerning Ethiopia was the revival of Italian colonial designs that led to the Fascist Italian aggression of 1935. oConsolidation of Political Power (1896-1909) Post-Adwa Triumph: The ruling class, led by Menelik II, experienced a triumphant mood following the Adwa victory (1896). Imperial Ethiopia's sovereignty was recognized by various states, and European nations opened legations in Addis Ababa. Diplomatic missions from the United States and Germany were sent in the early 20th century. Boundary Agreements: Ethiopia's borders with neighboring countries were delimited through agreements with European colonial powers. Agreements with Italy (1900, 1902, 1908), France (1907), Britain (1902, 1907), and Italy again (1908) secured Ethiopia's borders. International recognition was gained for the established boundaries. Addis Ababa as the Center: The ruling class established itself at Addis Ababa as the central hub. Tributes were collected from newly incorporated areas in the south, southeast, and southwest. Addis Ababa became a permanent capital due to factors such as land charters, eucalyptus introduction, railway connection, and foreign presence. The city's significance grew as a center of commerce, new ideas, and diplomacy. Factors Contributing to Addis Ababa's Importance: 34

Land Charters: Security of tenure through land charters promoted investment in building construction. Eucalyptus Introduction: Addressing the shortage of firewood in Addis Ababa. Railway Connection: The railway link (1917) increased the city's importance for trade and connectivity. Foreign Merchants: Presence of foreign merchants contributed to the city's economic and cultural significance. Diplomatic Presence: Foreign legations established in Addis Ababa, making it a diplomatic center for the country. Inception of Political Rivalry and Foreign Threat In 1906, Ethiopia faced internal power struggles triggered by concerns over succession, intensified by Emperor Menelik II's illness. The expected heir, Ras Mekonnen, died in 1906, leading to a leadership crisis. European powers, particularly Britain, France, and Italy, signed the Tripartite Treaty in 1906 to prevent potential conflicts and secure economic interests in Ethiopia, marking the first significant challenge to Ethiopia's post-Adwa independent status. Emperor Menelik responded to internal and external threats by taking two key actions. Firstly, in October 1907, he established the first Council of Ministers, comprised of nine ministries, to ensure efficient governance. Secondly, in May 1909, Menelik designated his grandson, Lij Iyasu, as heir and appointed Ras Bitwaded Tessema Nadew as regent to facilitate a smooth transition of power. However, Menelik faced challenges in making these decisions public due to clashes of interest between his wife, Empress Taytu, and the Shoan nobility. Empress Taytu sought political power for her family through strategic marriages, while the Shoan nobility viewed Menelik's choices with skepticism, particularly the selection of Lij Iyasu as heir. The stage was set for a power struggle and political instability in the Ethiopian leadership. The Challenge of Taytu Empress Taytu of Ethiopia faced a political challenge due to her lack of offspring. In her efforts to secure political power for her family, she arranged strategic marriages, such as between her niece and Ras Mekonnen. However, with Mekonnen's death, her plans were disrupted. Taytu also married her nephew to Menelik's daughter, Zewditu, aiming to position her family for a potential throne succession. Emperor Menelik, recognizing the potential threat to Shoan dynasty supremacy, designated his grandson, Lij Iyasu Michael, as heir in 1909. The Shoan nobility, however, was displeased with Iyasu, fearing his father Ras Michael might exploit the minor's position for personal gain. To counter Taytu's influence, Menelik attempted a marriage arrangement between Taytu's grand- niece and Lij Iyasu, but it failed. Taytu, determined to consolidate power, engaged in political maneuvering, utilizing promotions and demotions (shum shirs) to strengthen her family's position. Despite opposition from the Council of Ministers, she acted as the de facto head of state during Menelik's illness. The Shoan nobility, viewing Taytu as a threat, collaborated with Ras Michael in a secret plan to remove her from power. They orchestrated a public movement, involving the Mehal Sefari military units, leading to the removal of Empress Taytu from government affairs in March 1910. Taytu's bitter response and attempts to seek support from churches and legations were unsuccessful. She was exiled to the Church of St. Mary at Entoto in 1910, where she remained until her death in 1918. The coup against Taytu resulted in a reshuffling of political power, but the unex- 35

pected refusal of Lij Iyasu to accept another regent marked the beginning of a second phase of power struggles and political instability in Ethiopian leadership. Reign of Lij Iyasu (1913-1916) and His Deposition Lij Iyasu, despite not being officially crowned, wielded political power in Ethiopia from 1911 to 1916. Ras Abate Buayalew posed a significant challenge, attempting to forcefully enter the pal- ace, but the imperial guard's strong defense prevented bloodshed. While contemporary literature often emphasizes Iyasu's weaknesses, such as irresponsibility and polygamous marriages, he implemented notable social and economic reforms. Iyasu aimed to provide equal status to Ethiopian Muslims, integrating them into the administrative hierarchy, supporting mosque establishments, and forming marriage alliances with Muslim dynasties. His reforms included auditing government property, creating a municipal police force (Terunbule), and establishing a separate Department of Education, marking an early attempt at secularizing education in Ethiopia. Iyasu addressed traditional practices, improving methods like Leba Shay (thief detection) and ending practices like Quragna and Asrat Safari. Despite these progressive measures, his oppo- nents focused on his weaknesses, including polygamous relationships, adultery, and disrespectful behavior towards the old nobility. The Shoan nobility perceived Iyasu as a challenge, especially when he appointed his father, Mikael, as Negus over northern provinces and promoted relatives, friends, and in-laws, sidelin- ing the old nobility. His alignment with the Central Powers during World War I, particularly his friendship with Ottoman Turkey and Germany, alarmed the Allied powers with colonies in the region. Furthermore, Iyasu's support for a Somali nationalist movement antagonized the colonial powers, leading them to support the Shoan nobility in a coup against him. On September 27, 1916, Iyasu was deposed with the backing of the Mahal Sefari, the Abun, and the Echege. He attempted to reverse the coup but was defeated at the Battle of Mieso. His father, Negus Michael, also failed to reinstate him, suffering defeat at the Battle of Segele and dying in captivity. Iyasu remained a fugitive until his capture in Tigray in 1921, imprisoned in Fitche, and later in Garamulata, Hararge, where he died in 1936. The Diarchy (1917-1930) and Emergence of the Absolutist State (1930-1935) Diarchy (1917-1930): The Battle of Segele in 1916 marked the end of the struggle against Lij Iyasu, restoring Shewan political supremacy. Empress Zewditu was crowned Empress on February 1, 1917, with Ras Teferi Mekonnen as heir. Initially, Zewditu and Teferi worked together, forming a diarchy. The Council of Ministers, chaired by Fitawrari Habte Giorgis, was reorganized. Over time, Ras Teferi's power grew, surpassing that of the Empress. Struggles emerged between conservative traditionalists supporting Zewditu and progressive modernists favoring Teferi. Ras Teferi's rise was supported by European legations, viewing him favorably for capitalist investment opportunities. Ras Teferi's Rise to Power (1918-1930): In 1918, twelve ministers opposing Teferi were removed after accusations of corruption. The capture of Lij Iyasu in 1921 removed a rival. Ethiopia joined the League of Nations in 1923, marking an opening for diplomatic relations. Ras Teferi's grand tour of Europe in 1924 enhanced his interest in modernization. 36

Deaths of Fitawrari Habte Giorgis and Abune Metewos in 1926 opened opportunities for Ras Teferi. Unconditional surrender of Dejach Balcha Safo in 1927 further strengthened Teferi's position. In 1928, Ras Teferi was formally crowned Negus by Zewditu. Ras Gugsa Wolle, a last opponent, died in the Battle of Anchem in 1930, and Zewditu died two days later. Emergence of the Absolutist State (1930-1935): Haile Sellassie I, formerly Ras Teferi, became Emperor on November 2, 1930. Haile Sellassie pursued the establishment of an absolutist state, seeking a highly centralized unitary state. In 1931, he issued the first written Constitution, emphasizing the Emperor's absolute power and divine right to rule. The Constitution established a bicameral Parliament with an upper chamber of nobles appointed by the Emperor and a lower chamber of elected local notables. Centralization efforts continued with the appointment of regional rulers loyal to the Emperor and fiscal centralization, particularly in customs administration. The modernization of the army became a priority, with Belgian officers involved in training the Imperial Bodyguard and the opening of the first officer training school at Holeta Gannat in 1934. The emerging absolutist state aimed to eliminate regionalism, strengthen economic ties, and consolidate power under Haile Sellassie I. Defending Sovereignty and Territorial Integrity - Resistance to Egyptian and Mahdist Ag- gressions Egyptian Aggression: In the 19th century, Egypt aggressively expanded into the Horn of Africa, including Ethiopia, aiming to control the Nile drainage system. Sudan, occupied by Egypt in 1821, served as a base for encroachment into Ethiopian regions like Semen, Dambya, Assosa, and Beni-Shangul. During Emperor Tewodros's reign, Egypt occupied the port of Massawa in 1865 and collected heavy taxes, blocking the import of firearms. The grand ambition of Egyptian rulers was to establish a Greater Egypt in North-East Africa, with control over the Nile basin. In 1875, Egypt launched a large-scale invasion of Ethiopia, leading to the battles of Gundet and Gura in 1875-1876. Despite initial victories, Ethiopian gains were limited, and a period of no peace and no war continued for the next eight years. In 1884, the Hewett Treaty, facilitated by British diplomatic intervention, promised Ethiopia free transit via Massawa and restoration of occupied regions. Mahdist Threat and Italian Occupation: Egypt sought an alliance with Ethiopia due to British occupation in 1882 and Mahdist attacks in Sudan. The Hewett Treaty, signed in 1884, led to Ethiopia becoming an ally of Egypt, provoking Mahdist attacks on Ethiopian territories. Egypt only partially fulfilled the terms, returning Bogos to Ethiopia but handing Massawa to Italy. 37

The British secretly invited Italy to occupy Massawa in violation of the treaty, and Italy expanded into highland regions, leading to conflict. Despite protests and seeking diplomatic solutions, Ethiopia faced challenges as Italy occupied Massawa in 1885 and expanded further. European powers, including Britain and Italy, violated the terms of the Hewett Treaty, blocking arms imports and expanding into Ethiopian territories. Mahdist Threat Intensifies: Mahdist attacks resumed in 1888 and intensified in 1889, leading Emperor Yohannes to march to Matamma to counter the threat. Yohannes attempted peace initiatives, but the Mahdists did not respond positively. The Battle of Matamma on March 9, 1889, resulted in initial Ethiopian success, but Emperor Yohannes was fatally wounded, and the Ethiopian army retreated. Yohannes died the next day, and his corpse was beheaded by the Ansars as a sign of Mahdist revenge. Despite heavy losses on both sides, the Mahdists considered themselves content with Yohannes's death. This period marked Ethiopia's struggle against external aggressors, facing challenges from Egypt, Italy, and the Mahdists, with complex diplomatic maneuvers and military conflicts. Imperial Expansion under Emperor Menelik II Background: Empire building was a priority for Tewodros II and Yohannes IV, with Menelik II completing the process. Menelik's expansion focused on land, tribute, and control of trade routes. His territorial expansion coincided with European colonial powers' expansion in the Horn of Africa. Expansion under Menelik: Menelik's expansion targeted independent peoples and states in southwestern, southern, and southeastern Ethiopia. His conquests faced competition with European colonial powers, particularly in border regions. Expansion was intensified due to Menelik's need to build military strength for the throne and counter Italian colonialism. The conquests also aimed to address the devastating Great Famine of 1889-92, leading to population movement southward. Campaigns and Battles: Menelik's expansion began as King of Shoa, subduing Oromo, Kistane, and facing resistance in southern Gurage. Conflict over the Gibe basin with Takla-Haymanot of Gojjam was resolved in Menelik's favor at the Battle of Embabo (1882). Peaceful incorporation and administrative autonomy were granted to local rulers in southwestern regions. Costly campaigns in Arsi and the Emirate of Harar were waged, leading to bloody battles and eventual conquests. Strategic Pauses and Motivations: Menelik temporarily halted expansion to prioritize the throne and counter Italian colonialism. 38

Expansion to the south was also driven by the need to alleviate the effects of the Great Famine. Bloodiest Campaigns: The conquest of Wolayta in 1894 and the incorporation of Kaffa in 1897 were marked by immense loss of life and material wealth. Local rulers like Kawo Tona and Tato Geki Serecho were defeated and captured, resulting in significant bloodshed. Expansion into Border Regions: Local rulers of newly incorporated regions supported Menelik in further conquests along the Ethio-Sudanese border. Expansion into Borana and Ogaden, and along western borders, aimed to create a buffer zone against neighboring colonies. Administrative Approach: Regions resisting faced harsh treatment, with uprooted local dynasties and economic exploita- tion. Peaceful regions retained traditional power, becoming vassals with national oppression common. Political Stability and Economic Activities: The expanded empire led to political stability and facilitated the revival of local and foreign trade. Addis Ababa, founded in 1886, became the center of government and economic activities. Garrison centers evolved into administrative and commercial hubs in the south, southwest, and southeast. 6.3.2 Italian Aggression against Ethiopia and the Battle of Adwa During the second –half of the 19th century, a third and major source of aggression against Ethiopia was Italy. Italy had colonial designs over Ethiopia. Therefore, her colonial ambitions led her to occupy territories in the north, establish the colony of Eritrea and fight the Battle of Adwa against Ethiopia in 1896. First Strongholds of Italy in Ethiopia In 1882, the Italian Government took control of Assab, and in 1885, Italy occupied Massawa, initiating efforts to expand into the interior from the coast. Emperor Yohannes IV and his commander, Ras Alula Engida, opposed Italian encroachment into the highlands of the Mereb Mellash region. A significant event occurred on January 26, 1887, at Dogali, where Ras Alula defeated a contingent of about 500 Italian soldiers heading as reinforcements to the Saati fortress. This marked a significant setback for Italian colonial advances in Ethiopia, creating tension and prompting Italian desires for revenge. Britain intervened as a peace broker, proposing terms to Emperor Yohannes through envoy Gerald Portal in November 1887. The proposed terms included a war indemnity for Italy, an official Ethiopian apology for Alula's attack, and the cession of occupied coastal regions to Italy. Yohannes rejected these terms, choosing war over an unfavorable peace. Despite British efforts, war seemed inevitable. Emperor Yohan- nes mobilized about 80,000 men to march on Saati, the Italian fortress, in March 1888. However, the confrontation at Saati did not escalate into actual fighting, as the Italians remained within their fortified position, leading to a month-long deadlock. Due to logistical challenges and inadequate provisions, Yohannes had to decide between retreat and launching an attack on the Italians in their fortress. News of destructive Mahdist troop invasions, the rebellion of Negus Menelik and Negus Takla-Haymanot against Yohannes, and the friendly relations between Menelik and the Italians complicated the situation. Yohannes, facing threats on multiple fronts, decided to postpone the war with Italy. Instead, he prioritized addressing internal challenges, starting with an attack on Gojjam, where he obtained the submission of its king after a destructive campaign. The plan to confront Menelik was abandoned, and an agreement was reached between Emperor Yohannes and Menelik to support each other against common enemies. This alliance was motivated by the shared interest in maintaining peace and stability amid external threats from the Mahdists and Italy. The Convention of Neutrality signed in October 1887, which promised Menelik 39

5000 rifles from the Italians, further solidified Menelik's neutrality in the event of a conflict between Italy and Emperor Yohannes. The Birth of the Italian Colony of Eritrea The creation of the Italian colony of Eritrea was not solely a result of the Treaty of Wuchale signed on May 2, 1889, between Emperor Menelik and Italian envoy Count Pietro Antonelli. The roots of Italo- Shoan relations date back to 1876 when an Italian Geographical Society, led by Marquis O. Antinori, vis- ited Shoa to investigate opportunities for colonial expansion under the guise of scientific study. Shoa, being close to the Italian base at Assab and with the Shoan king as a rival to Emperor Yohannes, was seen as a potential ally for Italian ambitions. Menelik, aspiring to the throne, sought Italy's friendship as a means of acquiring firearms. An initial alliance was formed, with Menelik providing a resting place near Ankober for the Italians, and in return, Italy agreed to post an agent at Assab to purchase firearms for Menelik. The Treaty of Com- merce and Friendship, signed in October 1883, further solidified their relations, emphasizing consular exchange, free trade, free movement of nationals, and freedom of religious propagation. Another treaty in 1887, following the Dogali Incident, aimed to secure Menelik's neutrality in the event of war between Italy and Yohannes. While Menelik did not support Italian colonial expansion in principle, his drive for the imperial throne and the presence of Yohannes as an obstacle led him to seek Italy's friendship. The Treaty of Wuchale, signed after Menelik declared himself emperor, extended their mutual interests. Key articles in the treaty, particularly Article III, defined the boundary between Italian-occupied regions and the rest of Ethiopia, giving legal recognition to Italian possessions over much of the lowland and some highland regions beyond the River Mereb. However, the territorial cessions in the Treaty of Wuchale were unsatisfactory for Italian colonial ambitions. The Italians pushed beyond the defined borders, deceiving Ras Mekonnen, Menelik's cousin, who went to Italy for the ratification of the treaty. The Italians persuaded him to sign an additional Convention on October 1, 1889, aiming to advance further towards the River Mereb under the pretext of effective occupation. Despite Menelik's protests, the Italians occupied the entire region up to the Mereb River, officially declaring it as their colony of Eritrea on January 1, 1890 Italian Ambition over the Rest of Ethiopia and the Lead-up to War The Italians pursued a diplomatic campaign to establish the whole of Ethiopia as their protectorate, ex- ploiting a contradiction in the Amharic and Italian versions of Article XVII of the Wuchale Treaty. Mene- lik discovered this deception when European responses to his letters advised him to contact them through his "protector," Italy. This led to a major dispute, with Menelik protesting to King Umberto of Italy and requesting the correction of Article XVII. Italy, unwilling to make corrections, continued a policy of persuasion and subversion in Ethiopia. Menelik, aware of Italian diplomatic dishonesty, initiated a diplomatic campaign in April 1891, sending circular letters to European powers. He informed them of Ethiopia's independence and denounced Italy's claim of protectorate rights. The Italian government simultaneously pursued a policy of persuasion, attempting to induce Menelik to accept their version of Article XVII. Despite initial success in northern Ethiopia, the subversive activities failed as Ethiopian collaborators understood Italy's hidden colonial motives. Ras Mengesha and Ras Alula, initially collaborators with the Italians, renewed their loyalty to Menelik in June 1894. Additionally, Dejazmach Bahta Hagos, a former collaborator, started a rebellion against the Italians in December 1894, marking the beginning of armed resistance against Italian colonialism. In September 1895, Italy invaded Tigray, escalating tensions and leading to the inevitable war. Empress Taytu, advocating for armed resistance, had already started preparations for war. Menelik mobilized a united Ethiopia against Italy, issuing a mobilization order on September 17, 1895. The response from the Ethiopian people, including soldiers, peasants, men, women, young, and old, was overwhelming. Empress Taytu played a crucial role in preparing for war, gathering women to provide support in various capaci- ties. The stage was set for the decisive Battle of Adwa. 40

The Battle of Adwa and its Historical Significance The Battle of Amba Alage: Occurred on December 7, 1895, between Ethiopian forces led by Fitawrari Gebeyehu and Italian forces commanded by Major Toselli. Ethiopians achieved a significant victory, causing the Italians to retreat to their stronghold at Maqale. Siege of Maqale: Led by Ras Makonnen, the Ethiopian army surrounded the Italian fortress at Maqale. Empress Taytu's tactic of controlling a vital water source weakened the Italians during the siege. The fortress surrendered, and Menelik allowed the Italians to evacuate peacefully. Lead-up to the Battle of Adwa: Italians, unwilling to seek peace, amassed about 20,000 troops under General Oreste Baratieri. Italian troops were numerically inferior but had better firearms, modern training, and professional leadership. Misinformation from local double agents influenced Italian decisions, including choosing the date of battle on March 1, 1896. Battle of Adwa (March 1, 1896): Italian forces initiated the attack at dawn. A bloody battle ensued until mid-afternoon. Ethiopians, though suffering heavy casualties, secured a decisive victory. Italians lost about 7,000 dead, 2,500 badly wounded, and 3,500 prisoners of war. Ethiopian casualties were high but with no prisoners taken. Baratieri ordered a general retreat, and Italy relinquished its dream of colonial dominance over Ethiopia. Consequences and Historical Significance: Ethiopia's victory at Adwa was a symbol of national pride and marked the country's independence in the early 20th century. Recognition of Ethiopia's sovereignty was expressed through the opening of legations by various powers in Addis Ababa. Delimitation of boundaries between Ethiopia and neighboring colonies established the present shape of Ethiopia. Adwa drew international attention and changed perceptions of African nations' capabilities to resist colonization. Italy signed the Treaty of Addis Ababa, recognizing Ethiopia's complete independence but maintaining control over Eritrea. Adwa's impact extended to global colonial powers, influencing Britain's policy in Sudan and the Anglo-French rivalry in Africa. Adwa inspired religious separatist movements, collectively known as Ethiopianism, as a symbol of resistance against white domination. 41

Chapter Seven: Major Global Developments The Two World Wars World War I The basic causes of the First World War were: . Imperialist Rivalries and Colonialism: Economic and political rivalries among industrialized European nations fueled by capitalism. Intense competition for empires, economic interests, territories, and prestige. Conflicts and crises, such as the Fashoda Crisis and the Agadir Crisis, strained relations. Militarism and Arms Race: Insecurity among European powers led to a fierce competition for military supremacy. France, recovering from the Franco-Prussian War, and Germany, a powerful nation after unification, increased military budgets. Naval expansion by Germany challenged British naval supremacy, escalating tensions. Creation of Military Alliances: Bismarck's policy of isolating France resulted in the Dual Alliance (Germany and Austria- Hungary). Italy joined, forming the stronger Triple Alliance. Triple Entente (Britain, France, and Russia) formed in response, dividing Europe into two hostile military camps. Nationalism: Nationalism in 19th-century Europe caused armed conflicts. German unification humiliated France, creating a desire for revenge. Nationalism and discontent high in the Balkans, leading to conflicts and alliances. The Balkan crises of 1912-1913 intensified hatred between Russia, Serbia, and Austria-Hungary. Balkan Crises and Alliances: Balkan League formed against Ottoman Turkey, leading to the First Balkan War of 1912. Disputes over territory resulted in the Second Balkan War of 1913. Russia and Serbia's alliance strengthened, increasing hostility toward Austria-Hungary. These factors collectively set the stage for the outbreak of the First World War, reflecting the complex web of geopolitical, economic, and nationalistic tensions in early 20th-century Europe The Immediate Cause of the War: The immediate cause of the First World War was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914. Austria-Hungary held Serbia responsible due to existing tensions, and Germany provided a diplomatic "Blank Cheque" supporting Austria-Hungary. Austria-Hungary issued an ultimatum to Serbia, which led to the declaration of war on July 28, 1914. European powers in hostile military blocs joined the war, with Russia supporting Serbia and Germany declaring war on Russia and France. Britain declared war on Germany and its allies on August 4, 1914, marking the official beginning of the First World War. 42

The Course of the War: The war involved two major military blocs: Allied Powers (led by Britain) and Central Powers (led by Germany). The main theater of war was Europe, fought on the Western and Eastern fronts. Germany's Schlieffen Plan aimed to quickly defeat France, but the Belgians resisted, and the French forces halted the Germans at the Battle of the Marne. Despite success at the Marne, the French were unable to fully expel the Germans, making the second mistake of the war. On the Eastern Front, Russia moved faster than expected, invading East Prussia and Galicia. However, they suffered a defeat at the Battle of Tannenberg in August 1914. The war had begun with a complex set of geopolitical tensions and alliances, leading to a wide- spread conflict involving major European powers. The initial military strategies faced unex- pected challenges, setting the stage for a prolonged and devastating conflict on both the Western and Eastern fronts. The war on the Western Front reached a deadlock with the construction of a long trench stretch- ing from the Belgian coast to the Swiss border. Italy joined the Allies in 1915, hoping to gain territories from Austria. In 1916, the war continued as a deadlock, with battles on both fronts, but no conclusive victories The Allies' attempt to open the Dardanelles and capture Constantinople through the Gallipoli campaign failed due to strong Turkish resistance.. Naval Warfare and Blockade: The Battle of Jutland in 1916 between German and British fleets in the North Sea did not result in decisive victory for either side. Both sides engaged in a war of blockade, disrupting each other's trade routes using mines and submarines. German U-boats sank British ships, causing significant damage until mid-1917, when the British implemented defensive measures. Crucial Events in 1917: In March 1917, a popular revolution in Russia led to the downfall of the Tsarist regime and the establishment of a Provisional Government. Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, staged a second revolution in November 1917, overthrowing the Provisional Government and signing an armistice with the Central Powers in 1918. Entry of the USA and Changing Balance: In April 1917, the United States entered the war on the side of the Allies due to German subma- rine attacks on American ships. The entry of the USA shifted the balance of power in favor of the Allies, boosting their morale and providing fresh resources. The first Unified Allied command was created under Marshal Foch, and the Allies successfully repelled the last German offensive in 1918. Bulgaria surrendered in September 1918, followed by the collapse of Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Germany. Emperor Charles fled Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire surrendered, and a revolution in Germany led to Emperor William II's abdication. On November 11, 1918, at 11:00 A.M., Germany signed an armistice, marking the end of the First World War. 43

Reasons for Italy Joining the War: In 1915, Italy joined the Allies in the First World War. The Allies promised Italy territorial gains from Austria and parts of the Ottoman Empire in exchange for their support. Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary in May 1915. End of the War and its Consequences: The cease-fire agreement on November 11, 1918, was followed by peace treaties to settle disputes and establish enduring peace. The Paris Conference in 1919 involved the "Big Four": Lloyd George (Britain), V. Orlando (Italy), Clemenceau (France), and Woodrow Wilson (USA). Allies believed Central Powers were responsible for war destruction and aimed to punish them. Peace Treaties: The "Big Four" proposed their own terms; Clemenceau sought harsh terms on Germany, Orlando wanted promises fulfilled, Lloyd George aimed for a balanced Europe, and Wilson advocated for his Fourteen Points. The Treaty of Versailles (June 1919) was signed with Germany, imposing harsh terms, including loss of colonies, territories, military restrictions, and reparations. Similar treaties were signed with Austria (Treaty of Saint Germain), Hungary (Treaty of Tri- anon), and Ottoman-Turkey (Treaty of Sèvres). Harsh terms caused resentment and strong reactions in defeated nations, with the Treaty of Versailles being particularly denounced by Germans as a dictated peace. Consequences and Criticisms: The treaties led to territorial changes, disarmament, and financial reparations, contributing to future tensions. The Treaty of Versailles, in particular, is criticized for sowing seeds of future wars rather than establishing lasting peace in Europe. Strong nationalist movements, like the one led by Mustapha Kemal in Turkey, countered some treaty provisions and established independent nations. The post-war peace settlements marked a significant turning point in global geopolitics, but the harsh terms and perceived injustices contributed to future conflicts and tensions The Second World War : After World War I, there was a belief in lasting peace, but conflicts arose in the two decades that followed. Italy faced unrest and economic difficulties post-WWI, leading to the rise of fascism under Benito Mussolini in 1922. Understanding Fascism: Fascism, as developed by Mussolini, emphasized the unity of social groups under state control. Originating from the Latin term "fasces," fascism aimed for a strong, nationalistic dictatorship, promoting the nation's cause through war and conquest. Rise of Fascism in Italy: Mussolini exploited discontent, promising law and order, social stability, protection of property, and restoration of national greatness. 44

The Fascist Party gained popular support, and Mussolini, known as "Il Duce," became Prime Minister in 1922 and later established a dictatorship. Germany's Post-WWI Situation: Germany faced economic setbacks after WWI, exacerbated by reparations owed under the Versailles Treaty. The Weimar Republic struggled with economic issues, leading to hyperinflation and political instability. The Nazi Party, led by Adolf Hitler, gained strength in this troubled context. Rise of Nazism in Germany: Hitler's SA, or Brown Shirts, played a key role in the Nazi Party's activities. Hitler attempted a coup in Munich in 1923 (Beer Hall Putsch), leading to his imprisonment. Mein Kampf, written during Hitler's imprisonment, outlined Nazi ideology and future plans, becoming a blueprint for their actions. Economic Crisis and the Great Depression: Hitler's release in 1924 coincided with a period of economic recovery and political stability in Germany. However, the global economic crisis in 1929, triggered by the Wall Street stock market crash, led to the Great Depression. The Great Depression severely impacted nations worldwide, causing mass unemployment and economic hardships. This sets the stage for the further developments leading up to the outbreak of the Second World War. Rise of Hitler and Appointment as Chancellor (1933) Background: The Weimar Republic faced severe economic challenges during the Great Depression. The economic crisis halted foreign loans, leading to unemployment and bankruptcy. Nazi Party's Rise: Hitler and the Nazi Party capitalized on the economic despair, gaining popularity with their propaganda. By 1932, the Nazis became the largest party in the Reichstag but lacked a majority. Political Deadlock in 1933: Germany experienced a political deadlock in 1933 as no party secured a sufficient majority to form a government. President Paul Von Hindenburg offered Hitler the position of Chancellor to resolve the crisis. Consolidation of Power: Hitler became Chancellor in 1933, and a new election was called. A week before the election, the Reichstag building burned down, and Hitler accused communists without evidence. Civil rights were suspended, and many communists were arrested, reducing their influence. In the subsequent election, the Nazis secured enough seats to grant Hitler full powers, effectively making him a dictator. Dictatorial Measures: Hitler adopted the title "Leader" (Fuhrer) and began taking aggressive measures. These actions ultimately contributed to the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939. 45

Hitler's ascent to power marked a critical turning point in German and world history, setting the stage for the tumultuous events of the Second World War. Origins of World War II and Aggressive Actions by Axis Powers Peace Settlements after WWI: The fundamental cause of World War II was rooted in the peace settlements made at the end of World War I. Public opinion in Italy and Germany strongly opposed the peace treaties. Fascist regimes in Italy and Germany sought to reverse the settlements and regain lost glory through war and conquest. Japanese Aggression: Japan, taking the lead, conquered Manchuria in 1931 and established the puppet government of Manchukuo. The League of Nations condemned Japan as an aggressor, leading Japan to withdraw from the League in 1933. Aggressive expansion by Japan against China led to open war in July 1937. Italian Aggression: Encouraged by Japan, Italy invaded Ethiopia in 1935, violating international law and League of Nations sanctions. Mussolini's use of poison gas and swift victory marked the failure of the League of Nations and collective security. Hitler's Aggressive Actions: Hitler violated the Treaty of Versailles by introducing national military service in 1935. German armies occupied the demilitarized Rhineland in March 1936, breaching Versailles restrictions. In March 1938, German armies annexed Austria, fulfilling Hitler's dream of "Anschluss." Czechoslovakia became a target for Hitler's expansionist policy in 1938-1939, marking the last phase before the outbreak of war. These aggressive actions by Japan, Italy, and Germany, coupled with the failure of the League of Nations to take effective action, contributed to the erosion of collective security and the return to the principle of "might is right." Hitler's actions, in particular, set the stage for the outbreak of World War II in Europe. Munich Agreement and the Policy of Appeasement: Munich Conference (1938): Hitler targeted Sudetenland, strategically important and heavily fortified, along the German- Czech border. Sudeten Germans, in conflict with the Czech government, provided Hitler a pretext for aggression. Hitler demanded self-determination for Sudeten Germans in September 1938. Czechoslovakia refused, leading to martial law in Sudetenland. British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and French support sought to avert war through diplomatic means. Appeasement at Munich: Munich Agreement (1938) allowed Germany to annex Sudetenland. 46

In return, Hitler promised respect for Czechoslovakia's sovereignty and peaceful dispute resolution. Chamberlain, a proponent of appeasement, aimed to maintain peace and stability by conceding to Hitler's demands. This policy, ineffective in dealing with Hitler and Mussolini, encouraged further aggressive expansion. British and French Response to Mussolini's Invasion of Ethiopia: Britain and France refrained from effective action, fearing antagonizing Mussolini and pushing him toward an alliance with Hitler. Mussolini's invasion of Ethiopia led to the formation of the Rome-Berlin Axis (Germany and Italy) and the Anti-Comintern Pact (with Japan). Despite Soviet Russia's willingness to join the Western powers against Germany, Britain and France refused the alliance, disliking the USSR as much as Nazi Germany. In the Munich Agreement, they sought to satisfy Hitler at the expense of Czechoslovakia. Soviet-German Non-Aggression Pact (1939): The failure of appeasement led Britain and France to increase armaments and pledge military assistance to certain Eastern European countries. Attempts to include the Soviet Union in an anti-German alliance failed due to mutual distrust. Joseph Stalin, the Soviet leader, turned to Hitler, resulting in the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact (August 1939). Major terms included neutrality if one was at war with a third power and the division of Eastern Europe into German and Soviet spheres of influence. Poland, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania were identified as part of the Soviet sphere. Diplomatic Value and Intentions: Both Stalin and Hitler knew the pact had no lasting effect. Stalin aimed to strengthen Soviet military power and gain time. Hitler sought to avoid fighting the Soviets while dealing with other fronts. British and French leaders recognized the pact's destructive impact on stopping Hitler without war. The Munich Agreement and the subsequent developments highlighted the failure of appeasement and the complex diplomatic maneuvers leading to the outbreak of World War II. Blitzkrieg and German Success: Blitzkrieg in Poland (1939): Hitler's invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939, marked the beginning of World War II. Germans employed "Blitzkrieg" (lightning war), involving coordinated air and ground attacks for swift victories. Overwhelming German force shattered Polish resistance. The strategy led to a quick and decisive victory, and within a month, much of Poland was under German control. Poland was defeated despite nominal declarations of war by Britain and France, who provided no direct assistance. Soviet Involvement in Poland: While Germany annexed Danzig and over 30,000 square miles of Polish territory, the Soviets advanced into eastern Poland. The USSR took control of 77,000 square miles of Eastern Poland. 47

Soviets also coerced Baltic states into accepting military bases and later incorporated them into the USSR (1939-40). USSR fought and annexed Finnish territory, gaining some security against potential Nazi invasion. Phony War (Sitzkrieg) on the Western Front: After Poland's surrender, there was no real fighting on the Western Front for about seven months (Phony War). Allies anticipated German attacks through Belgium plains as in World War I. German invasion of Denmark and Norway on April 29, 1940, marked the end of the Phony War. Subsequent invasions of the Netherlands, Belgium, and France saw rapid German success, breaking through the Ardennes hills. Mussolini's Declaration of War (June 1940): Mussolini declared war on Britain and France on June 10, 1940. Mussolini wrongly believed that the war was near its end and wanted to align with the perceived winning side. Paris fell to the Germans on June 14, 1940, and an armistice between Germany and France was signed on June 22, 1940. Terms of the armistice saw Germany occupying northern France, including the Atlantic coast to the Spanish border, while a puppet Vichy government was established in southern France under Marshal Henri Petain. Mussolini's declaration of war coincided with a period of German success in the early stages of World War II, as demonstrated by swift victories in the Western Front and the fall of Paris. Japanese Expansion and Relations with the USA: Background to Japanese Expansion: Since the conquest of Manchuria in 1931, Japan aimed for further expansion in Asia and the Pacific. In 1937, Japan launched a full-scale invasion of China, establishing a Japanese-dominated government in part of China by March 1940. Japanese "New Order" and Expansionist Policies: In the months following the invasion of China, Japan officially announced its plan to establish a "New Order in Greater East Asia." The slogan "Asia for the Asians" was adopted, with the goal of creating a "Greater East Asia Co- Prosperity Sphere." Japan's true aim was to replace Western imperialism with Japanese imperialism. Increasing Tensions with the USA: Japan invaded the Tonkin province in Indochina in pursuit of its expansionist goals. The USA responded by extending a loan to China and halting the export of scrap iron to Japan, leading to strained relations. Tripartite Treaty and Escalating Tensions: In response to increasing economic pressure from the USA, Japan signed the Tripartite Treaty (Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Triangle) with Germany and Italy. The treaty pledged mutual assistance in the event of an attack on any of the three powers. Events Leading to Pearl Harbor: In July 1941, Japan extended control over the southern part of Indochina, intensifying tensions with the USA. 48

The USA, aiming to force Japan's withdrawal from Indochina and China, imposed economic sanctions, denying Japan essential raw materials. Pearl Harbor Attack (December 7, 1941): When negotiations failed to change US policy in Japan's favor, Japanese bombers launched a surprise attack on the American naval base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii on December 7, 1941. The attack resulted in the sinking of 19 American ships, the destruction of 188 planes, and significant casualties. The USA, shocked by the attack, declared war on Japan on December 8, 1941. Germany and Italy, in accordance with the Tripartite Treaty, declared war on the United States on December 11, 1941. Initial Japanese Advances in the Pacific: Following the attack on Pearl Harbor, Japan made rapid advances in the Pacific and Southeast Asia. Hong Kong, the Philippines, Burma, and Malaya were occupied by Japanese forces. The attack on Pearl Harbor marked the entry of the United States into World War II and significantly altered the course of the conflict in the Pacific. The World at War: Pearl Harbor Incident and Global Impact: The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941 marked the entry of the United States into World War II. The attack upset the balance of power and solidified alliances, with the USA, Britain, and others declaring war on Japan and, subsequently, Germany and Italy declaring war on the USA. Global Theaters of War (1942): By August 1942, the war was being fought on multiple fronts: Eastern Europe, North Africa, the Mediterranean, Burma and China, and the Atlantic and Pacific. Italian troops had invaded Egypt and Greece, while Japan made rapid advances in the Pacific and Southeast Asia. Eastern Front - Battle of Stalingrad (1942-1943): In the winter of 1941-42, Soviet forces launched a counter-offensive, pushing the Germans back from Moscow. In the summer of 1942, the Germans launched a new offensive, focusing on Stalingrad. The Soviets, determined to hold the city, encircled German forces. After fierce battles and a Soviet counter-attack, the Germans surrendered on February 1, 1943, marking a turning point in the European theater. Allied Victory in North Africa (1942-1943): In North Africa, German forces led by General Erwin Rommel dominated the desert war until late 1942. In October 1942, British and Commonwealth troops, under General Bernard Montgomery, launched a major attack, and Allied forces landed in Algeria and Morocco in November 1942. Fierce battles in the desert and Tunisia ended with the victory of Allied troops, leading to the surrender of Axis forces in North Africa in May 1943. Invasion of Italy (1943): In July 1943, Allied forces invaded Italy, leading to the removal of Mussolini from power. 49

King Victor Emmanuel III deposed Mussolini and appointed Marshal Pietro Badoglio as Prime Minister. Despite Badoglio's promise to Hitler, a secret act of surrender was signed with the Allies. Hitler sent German forces into Italy, occupying Rome and rescuing Mussolini. Heavy fighting continued in Italy until June 4, 1944, when Allied troops occupied Rome, and Mussolini was later captured and executed by Italian communists. These events marked significant turning points in the war, shaping its trajectory toward the eventual defeat of the Axis powers End of the War: D-Day and Liberation of France (1944): The Allied invasion of Normandy (Operation Overlord) on June 6, 1944, marked a major break- through in the reconquest of Europe. Led by General Dwight Eisenhower, around 150,000 troops, 5,300 ships, and 12,000 planes were organized for the invasion. Despite German preparations, the exact location and timing of the invasion remained unknown to them. Within a month and a half, Allied forces liberated almost all of France, and General Charles de Gaulle triumphantly entered Paris on August 25, 1944. Japanese Setback in the Pacific (1942-1944): The Battle of Midway Island in 1942 marked a decisive defeat for the Japanese navy. From then on, US forces pushed the Japanese back in the Pacific, preparing for an eventual invasion of mainland Japan. Soviet Advances and Berlin's Fall (1944-1945): On the Eastern Front, the Soviet Red Army made rapid advances, liberating cities and territories. By July 1944, they crossed into Polish territory, and between August and October 1944, much of Eastern and Central Europe came under Soviet control. In the west, Allied troops invaded Western Germany at the end of 1944, prompting Hitler's unsuccessful counter-attack in the Ardennes. Hitler's Suicide and Germany's Surrender (1945): On April 16, 1945, Marshal Zhukov launched the final attack on Berlin. Adolf Hitler committed suicide on May 2, 1945. Admiral Karl Doenitz became Hitler's successor, and on May 7, 1945, he authorized Germany's surrender to the Allies. On May 8, 1945, VE (Victory in Europe) Day marked the end of the war in Europe. Pacific Theater and Atomic Bombs (1945): Despite Germany's surrender, the war continued in the Pacific against Japan. The use of atomic bombs on Hiroshima (August 6, 1945) and Nagasaki (August 9, 1945) led to immense human and material destruction. On August 15, 1945, Japanese Emperor Hirohito signed the unconditional surrender of Japan, officially ending World War II. Controversy Surrounding the Atomic Bombs: The use of atomic bombs by the United States has sparked historical debate. Truman argued they hastened Japanese surrender, but Soviet historians claim it wasn't militarily necessary. Some argue that the USSR's declaration of war on Japan in August 1945 played a significant role in Japan's surrender. 50

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