Chapter Ten Linguistics and Language Teaching

1. Chapter Ten Linguistics and Language Teaching

2. Research scope • Applied linguistics • Schools of linguistics and their influence on SLA • Learning strategy e.g. ( process, style, brain-related issues left-and right-brain functioning) • Personality (affective factors such as

3. Research scope • Self-esteem, inhibition, risk-taking, motivation) • Social cultural factors( culture in classroom, language, thought and culture) • Contrastive analysis • Interlanguage • Error analysis

4. Research scope • Syllabus design • Communicative competence • Language testing (practicality, reliability, validity, kinds of test) • Theories of SLA • Comparing and contrasting FLA and SLA

5. Applied linguistics Relation between linguistics and language teaching Theoretical views of language explicitly or implicitly inform the approaches and methods adopted in language teaching. Linguistics, as the science of language, should be of fundamental importance for teachers of language. LINGUISTICS

6. 1. Linguistics and language learning Many language learning theories are proposed based on certain linguistic theories. In fact, knowledge in linguistics lies at the root of understanding what language learners can learn, how they actually learn and what they learn ultimately. LINGUISTICS

7. As Ellis (1994) points out, “whereas much of the earlier [second language acquisition] work focused on the linguistic and, in particular, the grammatical-properties of learner language and was psycholinguistic in orientation, later work has also attended to the pragmatic aspects of learner language and, increasingly, has adopted a sociolinguistic perspective. LINGUISTICS

8. Although certain language learners (e.g., advanced learners and students majoring a foreign language) certainly benefit from a knowledge of linguistics, it is not sensible to recommend the majority of language learners to study linguistics while they are still struggling with the task of learning the language itself. LINGUISTICS

9. 1.1 Grammar Do we teach grammar? How do we teach grammar? As a compromise between the “purely form-focused approaches” and the “purely meaning-focused” approaches, a recent movement called FOCUS ON FORM seems to take a more balanced view on the role of grammar in language learning. LINGUISTICS

10. Focus on Form Although language learning should generally be meaning-focused and communication-oriented, it is still necessary and beneficial to focus on form occasionally. Focus on form often consists of an occasional shift of attention to linguistic code features—by the teacher and/or one or more students—triggered by perceived problems with comprehension or production. LINGUISTICS

11. discrete- point grammar instruction • Conducted on the assumption that language can be broken down into its component parts and these parts are tested separately. • Four skills( listening, speaking, reading and writing) • Hierarchical units (phonology,morphology,lexicon,syntax)

12. Integrative testing • Cloze test and dictations • The ability to supply appropriate words requires a number of abilities (knowledge of vocabulary, grammatical structure, discourse structure, reading skills and strategy)

13. immersion • Language immersion is a method of teaching a second language (also called L2, or the target language) in which the target language is used for instruction. Unlike a more traditional language course, where the target language is simply the subject material, language immersion uses the target language as a teaching tool, surrounding or "immersing" students in the second language. In-class activities, such as math, science, social studies, and history, and those outside of the class, such as meals or everyday tasks, are conducted in the target language.

14. . Today's immersion programs are based on those founded in the 1960s in Canada when middle-income English-speaking parents convinced educators to establish an experimental French immersion program enabling their children 'to appreciate the traditions and culture of French-speaking Canadians as well as English-speaking Canadians'.

15. naturalistic acquisition • learners acquire a language with little formal training or teaching. • Everyday language situation (shopping, listening to radio) constitute the initial input.

16. Universal Grammar Two variables concerning the amenability of language elements to focus on form are the relevance of Universal Grammar (UG) and the complexity of language structures. According to the advocates of focus on form, if an L2 structure is part of UG, the amenability is high; otherwise, the amenability is low. LINGUISTICS

17. The problem is that no one knows for sure what exactly is part of UG. It is here that the study of linguistics comes into play. The study of UG, which is often considered as the theory for the sake of theory, is now needed in language learning research in the most practical sense. LINGUISTICS

18. The study of UG has attracted considerable attention from many second language acquisition researchers because knowledge of linguistic universals may help to shape L2 acquisition in a number of ways. For example, it can provide explanations for developmental sequences and language transfer. LINGUISTICS

19. Language transfer • (also known as L1 interference, linguistic interference, and crossmeaning) refers to speakers or writers applying knowledge from their native language to a second language. It is most commonly discussed in the context of English language learning and teaching, but it can occur in any situation when someone does not have a native-level command of a language, as when translating into a second language.

20. Structural complexity It can be assumed that less complex structures have higher amenability, but complexity is hard to define. Formally simple structures can be functionally complex and formally complex items are not necessarily functionally complex. Again we resort to linguistics in order to have a better understanding of the complexity of language structures. LINGUISTICS

21. grammar translation • In applied linguistics, the grammar translation method is a foreign language teaching method derived from the classical (sometimes called traditional) method of teaching Greek and Latin. The method requires students to translate whole texts word for word and memorize numerous grammatical rules and exceptions as well as enormous vocabulary lists. The goal of this method is to be able to read and translate literary masterpieces and classics.

22. Grammar-translation method Audiolingual method Situational language teaching LINGUISTICS

23. Audiolingual method • The audio-lingual method, is a style of teaching used in teaching foreign languages. It is based on behaviorist theory, which professes that certain traits of living things, and in this case humans, could be trained through a system of reinforcement—correct use of a trait would receive positive feedback while incorrect use of that trait would receive negative feedback.

24. audio-lingual method • This approach to language learning was similar to another, earlier method called the direct method. Like the direct method, the audio-lingual method advised that students be taught a language directly, without using the students' native language to explain new words or grammar in the target language. However, unlike the direct method, the audio-lingual method didn’t focus on teaching vocabulary. Rather, the teacher drilled students in the use of grammar

25. Situational language teaching • Introduction Situational language teaching is a term not commonly used today, but it is an approach developed by British applied linguists in the 1930s to the 1960s, and which had an impact on language courses which survive in some still being used today.

26. Theory of learning • The theory of learning underlying Situation Language Teaching is behaviorism, addressing more the processes, than the conditions of learning. It includes the following principles:  • language learning is habit-formation • mistakes are bad and should be avoided, as they make bad habits • language skills are learned more effectively if they are presented orally first, then in written form • analogy is a better foundation for language learning than analysis • the meanings of words can be learned only in a linguistic and cultural context

27. 1.2 Input Language learning can take place when the learner has enough access to input in the target language. This input may come in written or spoken form. In the case of spoken input, it may occur in the context of interaction or in the context of non-reciprocal discourse. LINGUISTICS

28. Views diverge greatly as to what kind of input should be provided for language learners. Authentic input Comprehensible input (Krashen): i+1 Premodified input Interactively modified input: tends to do a better job LINGUISTICS

29. 1.3 Interlanguage—output The type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language is often referred to as INTERLANGUAGE. It is often understood as a language system between the target language and the learner’s native language. LINGUISTICS

30. Interlanguage is a dynamic language system, which is constantly moving from the departure level to the native-like level. Can be done in two ways: (1) investigating the psychological, biological or neurological mechanisms involved in the production of interlanguage; (2) investigating the linguistic features of interlanguage. LINGUISTICS

31. Concerning the linguistic features of interlanguage, the following questions can be asked: (1) Linguistically, how is interlanguage in general different from the target language or the native language? (2) In what way is lower level interlanguage different from higher level interlanguage? (3) How is the interlanguage system used to convey meaning? LINGUISTICS

32. Constructivism Language (or any knowledge) is socially constructed. Learners learn language by cooperating, negotiating and performing all kinds of tasks. In other words, they construct language in certain social and cultural contexts. LINGUISTICS

33. 2. Linguistics and Language Teaching Linguistics theories influence our general orientation in approaches to language teaching. Linguistic knowledge helps teachers to better explain the specific language items they teach. LINGUISTICS

34. 2.1 Discourse-based view Linguistic patterns exist across stretches of text. These patterns of language extend beyond the words, clauses and sentences, which have been the traditional concern of much language teaching. LINGUISTICS

35. Focuses on complete spoken and written texts and on the social and cultural contexts in which such language operates. Accordingly, it aims at developing discourse competence, similar to the well-known concept of communicative competence. LINGUISTICS

36. Communicative competence Dell Hymes What a learners knows about how a language is used in particular situations for effective and appropriate communication. Includes knowledge of the grammar and vocabulary, knowledge of rules of speaking, knowledge of how to use and respond to different types of speech acts and social conventions, and knowledge of how to use language appropriately. LINGUISTICS

37. It is believed that language learning will successfully take place when language learners know how and when to use the language in various settings and when they have successfully cognized various forms of competence such as grammatical competence (lexis, morphology, syntax and phonology) and pragmatic competence (e.g., speech acts). LINGUISTICS

38. In the case of foreign/second language learning, language learners are encouraged to deal with accomplishing actions, which are thought to help them acquire the target language. The COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING (CLT) and TASK-BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING (TBLT) are the best known examples of such a theory. In the CLT or TBLT classroom, students are expected to learn by performing tasks. LINGUISTICS

39. Task-based Two broad types of tasks: real-world tasks and pedagogical tasks. A real-world task is very close to something we do in daily life or work. Pedagogical tasks are those activities that students do in the classroom but that may not take place in real life. LINGUISTICS

40. Drawbacks Overemphasizes the role of external factors in the process of language acquisition and gives little importance to internal learning processes. Similar to the behavioristic view of language acquisition in that environmental factors and input are at the very center in attempting to explicate the acquisition process. Overstresses the role of knowledge of competence and functions in acquiring a language, and hence fails to notice universal principles that guide language acquisition. LINGUISTICS

41. 2.2 Universal Grammar (UG) Noam Chomsky A native speaker possesses a kind of linguistic competence. The child is born with knowledge of some linguistic universals. While acquiring his mother tongue, he compares his innate language system with that of his native language and modifies his grammar. LINGUISTICS

42. Input is poor and deficient in two ways. (1) It is “degenerate” because it is damaged by performance features such as slips, hesitations or false starts. Accordingly, the input is not an adequate base for language learning. (2) It is devoid of grammar corrections. It does not normally contain “negative evidence”, the knowledge from which the learner could exercise what is “not” possible in a given language. LINGUISTICS

43. Although UG was not originally proposed to account for second language acquisition, many researchers are working on its implication for language learning and teaching. Vivian Cook wrote a whole book to account for second language acquisition based on Chomsky’s linguistic theory. LINGUISTICS

44. Drawbacks UG’s primary aim is to account for how language works, not acquisition. UG is only concerned with the core grammar of language (syntax). The communication function is discarded in UG. Chomsky is concerned only with ‘competence’, there can be little likelihood of SLA researchers carrying out empirical research. LINGUISTICS

45. 3. Syllabus Design A bridge between language teaching theory and language teaching practice. Translates theoretical understanding of language teaching and sets up an operable framework for language teaching. The most important part of syllabus design is selecting and sequencing language items. LINGUISTICS

46. 3.1 Types of syllabus Structural Situational Functional/notional Communicative Task-based Content-based LINGUISTICS

47. Task-based language learning (TBLL), also known as task-based language teaching (TBLT) or task-based instruction (TBI) focuses on the use of authentic language and on asking students to do meaningful tasks using the target language. Such tasks can include visiting a doctor, conducting an interview, or calling customer service for help. Assessment is primarily based on task outcome (in other words the appropriate completion of tasks) rather than on accuracy of language forms. This makes TBLL especially popular for developing target language fluency and student confidence.

48. The core of the lesson is, as the name suggests, the task. All parts of the language used are deemphasized during the activity itself, in order to get students to focus on the task. Although there may be several effective frameworks for creating a task-based learning lesson, here is a rather comprehensive one suggested by Jane Willis.

49. Pre-task • In the pre-task, the teacher will present what will be expected of the students in the task phase. Additionally, the teacher may prime the students with key vocabulary or grammatical constructs, although, in "pure" task-based learning lessons, these will be presented as suggestions and the students would be encouraged to use what they are comfortable with in order to complete the task. The instructor may also present a model of the task by either doing it themselves or by presenting picture, audio, or video demonstrating the task.[1]

50. Priming is the implicit memory effect in which exposure to a stimulus influences response to a later stimulus. It can occur following perceptual, semantic, or conceptual stimulus repetition. It happens, for example, that if a person reads a list of words including the word table, and is later asked to complete a word starting with tab, the probability that they will answer table is greater than if not so primed.