Islamic republic of iran

1. Islamic republic of iran

2. Geography • Arid plateau around 4000 feet above sea level • Bounded by Armenia, Azerbaijan, Caspian Sea, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Gulf of Oman, Persian Gulf, Turkey and Iraq

3. King Darius - Zoroastrianism • Iranian sovereigns were hereditary military leaders • Darius built capital of Persepolis • Built intricate system of roads • King’s authority supported by strong military as well as state-sponsored religion: Zoroastrianism • Zoroastrianism did not survive as major religion but continued to be practiced regularly until 7th century CE.

4. Shi’ism • Between 7th & 16th centuries CE religion held Iran together • Numerous invasions by Arabs introduced Islam to the region • Even when Iranian caliphate was defeated by Mongols in 13th century the Mongolians converted to Islam • Shi’ism established as state religion in 16th century

5. Shi’ism II • Shi’ites – after Muhammad’s death they felt that leadership of the Muslims should be hereditary and pass to Muhammad’s son-in-law, Ali. • Sunnis favored choosing a caliph from the accepted Sunni leadership • When Ali was killed the Shi’ite opinion became a minority one, but they kept their separate identity • True heirs of Islam were the descendants of Ali • The heirs (Imams) continued until the 9th century, when the 12th descendant disappeared as a a child, to become known as the “Hidden Imam”

6. Twelver Shi’ism • “Hidden Imams” • 12th Imam disappeared as a child in 874 CE, did not die however, will come forward and show himself to establish just rule at the end of times, when injustice and corruption reign supreme (Messiah-like figure) • Ulema were willing to give the right to rule to the shahs as long as they ruled justly • By end of the 17th century for a shah’s rule to be legitimate he had to have the ulema’s endorsement • Ulema ultimately establish themselves as an institution independent of the state, tithes were often paid to the ulema directly giving them both political and economic influence • The center of Twelver Shi’ism is the city of Najaf, in Iraq

7. Safavid Empire (1501-1722) • Established Shi’ite identity in Iran • By mid-17th century converted 90% of population to Shi’ism • Tolerated “People of the Book” – monotheistic religions based on holy books similar to the Qur’an • Serious economic problems do to breakup of the Silk Road • Had no money for large bureaucracy or standing army • Relied on local rulers to maintain order and collect taxes • Claimed absolute power but lacked a central state • Monarchy became separated from society and lost power by 1722

8. Qajars (1794-1925) • Turkish people that reconquered Iran at end of 18th century • Moved capital to Tehran • Could not claim to be descendents of Twelve Imams • Shi’ite clerical leaders could claim more power as interpreters of Islam, separation between government and religion widened • Suffered land loss to European empires of 19th century, sold oil rights to British in the southwest • Shah led country into serious debt • Iranians upset over shah’s lavish lifestyle look for change that would be initiated by bankers and businessmen

9. Constitutional Revolution • Constitution of 1906 • Elections • Separation of Powers • Laws made by an elected legislature • Popular sovereignty • Bill of Rights guaranteeing citizen equality, protection of the accused, and freedom of expression • Majlis & Guardian Council created • Shi’ism becomes official state religion

10. Pahlavis (1925-1979) • By early 1920’s Iran in political and economic disarray • Majlis divided by quarreling factions • Iran divided into three parts after WWI with Russia and Great Britain each occupying a third of the country • Cossack Brigade of the Qajar’s led by Colonel Reza Khan carries out coup d’etat in 1921 and claims himself shah-in-shah in 1925 establishing the Pahlavi dynasty

11. Pahlavi’s continued • Authoritarian rule reestablished in Iran • Majlis loses its power • Reza Shah passes power to his son, Muhammad Reza Shah in 1941 • Democratic experiment of 1906 constitution not forgotten, shah challenged domestically • Tudeh Party (communists) • National Front (nationalists) Muhammad Mossadeq • Mossadeq overthrown by CIA in 1953, Shah reinstated

12. Pahlavi - OIL & the Rent-seeking state • Iran transformed into rent-seeking state under Pahlavi’s because of increasing income from oil • Rentier Economy: heavily supported by state expenditure, while the state receives “rents” from other countries • Iran received increasing revenue from exporting oil and leasing oil fields to foreign countries • Although shah promoted import substitution policies by 1979 oil & associated industries provided 97% of foreign exchange and majority of Iran’s GNP • Oil revenue became so great government did not have to rely on internal taxes to generate income, paid expenses from oil profits • The people become unnecessary to the government in a rentier state

13. Pahlavi Influence • Centralized State • State banks • National radio/TV networks • National Iranian Oil Company (NOIC) • Central Bureaucracy controlled local governments • Majlis became “rubber-stamp” legislature • Secularization in judicial branch (European-style judicial system) • “White Revolution” • Armed forces 5th largest in world by 1979 • Patronage – shah’s boost personal wealth by seizing property and establishing tax-exempt Pahlavi Foundation that controlled large companies and fed their wealth • Muhammad Reza Shah formed Resurgence Party, claimed Iran was one-party state, named himself head

14. Pahlavi – “White Revolution” • “White” to counter influence of “red” communists • Land reform – government bought land from large absentee owners and sold it to farmers at affordable prices • Encourage agricultural entrepreneurship with irrigation canals, dams, & tractors • Women’s rights (secularization) • Suffrage • Restricting Polygamy • Women allowed to work outside the home

15. Islamic Revolution & the Republic (1979-present) • Dominant ideology of Iranian revolution: Religion • Leader a cleric (Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini) • Theocracy established • Fundamental Islam • Causes • Shah perceived as being totalitarian • Balance between secular and religious state ruptured • Ties with US and the Western world

16. Khomeini, Fundamentalism, & Revolution • Islamic Fundamentalism • Literal interpretation of Islamic texts • Social conservatism • Political traditionalism • Resentment towards elites, US, and the Western world • US was the “Great Satan” • Velayat-e faqih (jurist’s guardianship) • Senior clergy given authority over entire Shi’ia community

17. Revolution • Oil prices decrease about 10% in late 70s • Consumer prices in Iran increase about 20% at the same time • “Revolution of Rising Expectations” – revolutions occur when people are doing better than they once were and a set back occurs • US puts pressure on shat to loosen restrictions on civil society, in particular restraints on political opposition • Once restrictions were eased many groups join the revolt (students, teachers, labor groups, oil workers, merchants, and professional associations)

18. Revolution II • 1978 • Unarmed demonstrators killed in central square Tehran • Oil workers go on strike • Anti-regime rallies attract 2 million participants • Rallies organized and led by clerics • Shah flees the country in February 1979 • Khomeini returns to Iran from exile in Paris

19. Islamic Republic • April 1979 referendum held, Iranians officially vote out the shah, Islamic Republic established • Assembly of Religious Experts – 73 clerics elected by the people draft a new constitution in 1979 • US-Iranian hostage crisis on-going during vote to ratify constitution • 99% of electorate vote to endorse constitution although only 75% of eligible voters cast votes

20. Khomeini & the Islamic Republic • Clerics consolidate power • Popular support for regime high • World oil prices rise again, allowing for social programs, improvements in medicine & housing • Iraq invades Iran, people rally around the government • Charisma of Khomeini inspired faith in the government • Khomeini dies in 1989, constitution amended • Ali Khamenei succeeds Khomeini, does not have the same political charisma as the Ayatollah • Iran/Iraq war ends in 1988, country war-torn • Oil prices drop in 1990’s • Population begins to question authoritarian rule of the clerics

21. Constitution of 1979 • Document & 40 Amendments (Some added in 1989) • Mixture of theocracy and democracy • Preamble reflects importance of religion • Velayat-e faqih (Jurist’s guardianship) • Gave broad authority to Khomeini and the clerics

22. Political Cleavages • Religion • Ethnicity • Social Class • Reformers vs. Conservatives

23. Religion • 89% of Iranians are Shi’a Muslims • 10% are Sunni Muslim • The constitution does not mention Sunni’s and their legal status is therefore unknown • 1% are combination of Jews, Christians, Zoroastrians, and Baha’i • Constitution recognizes rights of religious minorities, many religious minorities have left country since Islamic Revolution • Baha’i considered unholy offshoot of Islam and they have been persecuted by Shi’ite governments. • Baha’i leaders have been executed, imprisoned, tortured, their schools closed and property confiscated

24. Ethnicity • 51% Persian (speak Farsi) • 24% Azeri • Live mostly in the northwest close to Azerbaijan, this causes tension with Iranian government worried that Azeri may want to unite part of Iranian territory with Azerbaijan • Azeri do not speak Farsi, but they are mostly Shi’ite, Ali Khameini was Azeri • 8% Gilaki & Mazandarani • 7% Kurds • Predominantly Sunni • 3% Arabic • Predominantly Sunni

25. Social Class • Peasantry and middle class support Islamic regime • Benefited from government social programs. • Provided electricity & paved roads • Middle & Upper-middle class largely secularized • Critical of clerics • Have not fared well economically under the Republic this reinforces their cultural and political views

26. Political Culture • Authoritarianism (not totalitarianism) – leaders claim to be all powerful, but do not interfere with every aspect of the citizens lives • Union of political & religious authority • Shi’ism & Sharia – key components of everyday life • Escape from European Colonialism • Geographic Limitations – limited arable land forced expansion through military conquest, population of Iran unevenly distributed in cities and northwestern part of country • Influence of Ancient Persia

27. Political Culture • Shi’ism unifying thread to political culture • Multi-faceted political culture: • Authoritarianism • Union of political and religious authority • Shi’ism and shari’a central components • No European colonization • Geographic limitations • Influence of ancient Persia

28. Protests and Demonstrations • College campus active in protests • 1999 – gov’t shut down reformist newspaper • 2002 – death sentence for reformist academic • 2003 – student demonstrations over privatization of university system • Today: concerns from workers like high unemployment, low wages, labor laws

29. Women in Iran • Women have better access to education • Women often considered wards of their male relatives • Today: college students and professionals • Islamic Republic policy is “equality-with- difference” • Women not well represented in the Majles

30. Legitimacy of Modern State • Revolution of 1979 • Legitimacy attached to principles of Shi’ism • Constitution of 1979 • Amended in 1989

31. Women & the Political System • Treatment of women in Iran is probably more contentious for Westerners than the majority of Iranian women • When shari’a law is interpreted narrowly women are considered wards of their male relatives • “Equality-with-difference” policy – instituted by the Islamic Republic slants law favorably towards men on issues such as divorce and custody • Women must wear scarves and long coats in public • Women can not leave country without consent of male relatives • Occasionally women stoned for committing adultery • Women allowed to get education in Iran and entrance into some occupations • Expectations for better jobs and increased political rights among educated women • Half of college students in Iran are women • Women make up 27% of the labor force