Anatomy & Physiology II Unit Four

1. Anatomy & Physiology II Unit Four

2. 1st Law of Thermodynamics Energy is neither created or destroyed, but can change forms 2nd Law of Thermodynamics When energy changes forms it becomes more disordered (entropy)

4. CO2 + H2O + E C6H12O6 + O2 Photosynthesis (an endergonic reaction)

5. C6H12O6 + O2 CO2 + H2O + E Cellular respiration (an exergonic reaction)

6. Photosynthesis CO2 + H2O + E C6H12O6 + O2 C6H12O6 + O2 CO2 + H2O + E Cellular respiration This energy is used to form ATP!

7. ATP Adenosine triphosphate The fuel of living cells

8. Energy released to do work in cell Energy released from food (glucose)

9. Metabolism all the chemical reactions in a body that involve the transfer of energy anabolic - building up reactions catabolic - tearing down reactions C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O E 36ADP + 36Pi 36ATP

10. Oxidation-Reduction Reactions

11. ATP production is the goal of cell respiration! One molecule of glucose yields 36 ATPs! This process is actually four: Glycolysis Transition Reaction Krebs Cycle Electron Transport System

12. Glycolysis Cytoplasm Mitochondrion In: 1 glucose 2 ATPs Out: 2 NADH + H+ 4 ATPs (2 net) 2 pyruvic acids (C3) Anaerobic respiration – no oxygen

13. Anaerobic respiration – no oxygen Mitochondrion No oxygen present OR Ethanol

14. Mitochondrion Transition Reaction In: 2 pyruvic acids (C3) Decarboxylation – 2 CO2 Out: 2 NADH + H+ 2 Acetyl CoA (C2) Aerobic respiration – oxygen is present

15. Mitochondrion Krebs Cycle In: 2 acetyl CoA (C2) Out: 6 NADH + H+ 2 FADH2 2 ATPs Decarboxylation – 4 CO2 Aerobic respiration – oxygen is present

16. Electron Transport System Mitochondrion In: 2 NADH + H+ (Glycolysis) 2 NADH + H+ (Transition Reaction)6 NADH + H+ (Krebs Cycle) 2 FADH2 (Krebs Cycle) X 2 = 4 ATPs X 3 = 6 ATPsX 3 = 18 ATPs X 2 = 4 ATPs ----------- 32 ATPs Oxygen is the final H+ acceptor Out: 32 ATPs6 H2O Aerobic respiration – oxygen is present

17. ATP production is the goal of cell respiration! Glycolysis – 2 ATPs Transition Reaction – 0 ATPs Krebs Cycle – 2 ATPs Electron Transport System – 32 ATPs One molecule of glucose yields 36 ATPs!

18. Definitions Glycogen – the animal storage form of glucose Dehydration synthesis – the assembling of organic molecules by extracting water Hydrolysis – the breaking up of organic molecules using water

20. Definitions Glycogenesis – the formation of glycogen from glucose Glycogenolysis – the conversion of glycogen to glucose Gluconeogenesis – the conversion of non-carbohydrates into glucose

25. Examples of Lipid Anabolism Triglycerides Phospholipids Steroids (cholesterol, sex hormones, etc.) Prostaglandins Waxes

26. Examples of Protein Anabolism Glycoproteins Hemoglobin Enzymes Collagen Antibodies

27. Cholesterol Metabolism Cholesterol is a lipid that has several functions in the body: # enhances cell membrane flexibility # structural basis for bile salts # structural basis for steroid hormones # structural basis for vitamin D

28. Cholesterol Metabolism Approximately 85% of the body cholesterol is produced by the liver and the remaining 15% comes from the diet As it is a lipid, it is insoluble in plasma so it is combined with proteins to form lipoproteins

29. Cholesterol Metabolism LDL (low density lipoproteins) - high % of lipids to proteins HDL (high density lipoproteins) - high % of proteins to lipids

30. Cholesterol Metabolism LDLs transport cholesterol to tissues to be used in their membranes, hormone synthesis or storage LDLs also stimulate the production of more cholesterol in the tissues

31. Cholesterol Metabolism HDLs transport excess cholesterol from the tissues to the liver to be catabolized Therefore, HDLs can reduce cholesterol amounts

32. Cholesterol Metabolism Dietary saturated fats stimulate the liver to produce more cholesterol and inhibit its catabolization and excretion

33. Hormones Biological regulatory compounds secreted by endocrine glands that alter the metabolism of the body cells they target Hormones function to regulate body metabolism, growth and reproduction

34. Endocrine System

35. Lipid Based Hormone Action

36. Non-Lipid Based Hormone Action

37. Homeostatic Control of Hormone Secretion

38. Homeostatic Control of Blood Glucose

39. Imbalances in the Homeostatic Control of Metabolic Hormones Cretinism - individual is small, malproportioned and exhibits sever mental retardation Cretinism is caused by hypothyroidism in infancy

40. Imbalances in the Homeostatic Control of Metabolic Hormones Gigantism - individual exhibits abnormally long growth in the length of bones Gigantism is caused by hypersecretion of GH during childhood

41. Imbalances in the Homeostatic Control of Metabolic Hormones Dwarfism - individual exhibits abnormally short growth in the length of bones Dwarfism is caused by hyposecretion of GH during childhood

42. Imbalances in the Homeostatic Control of Metabolic Hormones Acromegaly - individual exhibits abnormal thickening of bones and growth of connective tissues in the face, hands & feet, changing their appearance Acromegaly is caused by hypersecretion of GH in adults

43. Imbalances in the Homeostatic Control of Metabolic Hormones Diabetes mellitus (Type I & Type II) ~ destruction of pancreatic beta cells ~ reduced sensitivity of insulin receptors in body cell membranes

44. Imbalances in the Homeostatic Control of Metabolic Hormones Hyperglycemia - high blood glucose Hypoglycemia - low blood glucose