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Overview

Overview. The challenge ZEV program history & technology story The 2003 regulation ARB’s role in bringing ZEVs to commercialization Section 177 States Next steps Conclusion. Key Motor Vehicle Regulations. On-Board Diagnostics II. Low Emission Vehicle I (LEV I)

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Overview

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  1. Overview • The challenge • ZEV program history & technology story • The 2003 regulation • ARB’s role in bringing ZEVs to commercialization • Section 177 States • Next steps • Conclusion

  2. Key Motor Vehicle Regulations On-Board Diagnostics II Low Emission Vehicle I (LEV I) + Phase I Gasoline Roadside Truck Inspections Phase II Gasoline ZEV Program Begins Gasoline Trucks Diesel Trucks Low Emission Vehicle II (LEV II) On-Road Motorcycles Urban Transit Buses Diesel Trucks Diesel Trucks 1995 2000 1990

  3. The Technology Development Story

  4. Paul MacCready & AeroVironment • 1977-1979 Achieves human powered flight • 1981 Achieves solar electric flight • 1982 Builds Sunraycer solar EV for GM • 1988 Proposes Project Santana to GM, a highly-efficient lead-acid battery EV ...they bite, and budget $3M • 1989 Santana (Impact/ EV1) tested at GM proving grounds in Arizona

  5. 1990: “Roger and Us” • January 1990 GM Chairman Roger Smith announces the Impact (EV1) electric vehicle at the Los Angeles Auto Show • The Impact (EV1) becomes one of the most publicized concept cars that GM ever (had) built • Earth Day 1990- Roger Smith announces that GM will put the Impact (EV1) into production

  6. 1990: ARB LEV I • Declining fleet average requirement • Included Clean Fuel Outlet program • Initial ZEV requirement • Full implementation by 2003

  7. Motor Vehicle Fuels Control Strategy • Treat vehicles / fuels as a system • Vehicle emission standards • Fuel standards • Include lubricants • Flexible

  8. 1990: ZEV Requirements • Located within LEV I in section 1960.1 (g) (2) as footnote (5) to a table for “Fleet Average NMOG Exhaust Emission Standards for LDV Weight Classes 7-10”, it said: “While meeting the fleet average standards, each manufacturer’s sales fleet shall be composed of at least 2% ZEVs in the model years 1998 through 2000, 5% ZEVs in 2001 and 2002, and 10% ZEVs in 2003 and subsequent.” • Entire ZEV regulation was only a few sentences

  9. 1990: ZEV Requirements • Other elements: • Intermediate manufacturers exempt until 2003 • Biennial reviews • Regulatory flexibility (e.g. trading, banking)

  10. 1990: ZEV Program Rationale • Projected improvements in conventional technology not sufficient to meet air quality standards • Substantial portion of the fleet had to emit “zero” (clean California power plant levels) • ZEVs avoid ICE vehicle emissions performance deterioration with age

  11. 1990: Initial Focus- Battery EVs • “The staff anticipates that all ZEVs will be powered by electricity” 8/13/90 Staff Report • Vehicle components • Motors (brushless DC and AC induction) • Controllers (inverter+) • Power electronics • Batteries • Advanced lead-acid • Sodium sulfur • Nickel metal hydride • Lithium ion and polymer • Sodium nickel chloride (“Zebra”)

  12. Initial Focus - Battery EVs

  13. 1991: US Advanced Battery Consortium • Formed in January 1991 • USABC - part of the US Center of Automotive Research (US CAR) • Mission: To pursue research and development of advanced energy systems capable of providing future generations of electric vehicles with significantly increased range and performance. • No funding for advanced lead-acid batteries

  14. 1991: USABC Goals • Establish the technical capability for advanced battery manufacturing in the United States for electric vehicles • Accelerate the market potential of electric vehicles by supporting research and development of the most promising advanced battery alternatives. • Develop electrical energy systems capable of providing electric vehicles with range and performance competitive to gasoline-powered vehicles. (150 miles range at ICE vehicle cost) • Leverage funding for high-risk, high-cost, advanced battery research and development for electric vehicles.

  15. 1993: GM PrEView Program • GM launched the Impact prototype test-drive program (PrEView) • Intended to gather real-world driving and charging data • Available for loan to public in 12 selected cities • 14 utility partners acted as program managers • 500+ drivers • 300,000+ miles accumulated

  16. 1993: Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles • PNGV initiated in September 1993 • Emphasized research and development programs designed to triple fuel efficiency • Goal to culminate in the production of prototype family autos in 2004 • Technologies would be incorporated into more efficient production vehicles about four years later • Restructured to FreedomCar program in January 2002

  17. 1995: ARB Battery Panel Review • Lead-acid available but performance less than needed • Promising advanced battery developments worldwide • Pilot-scale production necessary to prove-out production processes • Best case: commercial introduction of advanced battery vehicles in 2000 or 2001

  18. 1996 ZEV Regulation 10 % ZEVs in 2003

  19. 1996: ZEV Amendments • Early requirements (1998-2002) eliminated • ARB established agreements with large automakers to place technology demonstration fleet (“MOA” Vehicles): • Advanced batteries encouraged • ~ 1,800 vehicles expected • Support activities • Infrastructure • Codes and standards • Emergency response • Battery research & development • ZEV regulation now ~3 pages long

  20. 1996+:MOA EVs • In general, these EVs were very successful in operation- EVs had come a very long way. • Automakers claimed marketability challenges • Design distinctions: • Most of those with reasonable performance made use of advanced batteries, except the Panasonic EV1 • All used 2-4 x the energy per mile as a Panasonic EV1

  21. 1997:Solectria Sunrise • Tested at ARB in March of 1997 • Very different from MOA EVs, • “EV1-like”, but with more seating capacity • 5 passenger/ lightweight/ efficient design • Equipped with Nickel-metal hydride • Range: 155/ 204 miles (city/ hwy) • Never went into production

  22. 1998:ARB LEV II • Adopted 1998, implementation 2004-2010 • Sport Utility Vehicles (SUVs) and pick-up trucks must meet passenger car standards • Lower emission standards for all vehicle categories • New SULEV emissions standard • Elimination of TLEV category • Near- and zero-evaporative requirements

  23. 1998:LEV II Exhaust Emission Standards* * grams per mile

  24. Fleet AverageProvides Flexibility NMOG, g/mi Model Year NMOG credits from PC/LDT1 can be used to offset LDT2 NMOG emissions

  25. 1998:ZEV Regulation • ZEV regulation moved to its own separate section (1962) • Partial ZEV credits for qualifying technologies • Allowed PZEV substitution: • up to 6 percent for large automakers • up to 10 percent for intermediate automakers • ZEV regulation now up to ~8 pages long

  26. 1998 ZEV Regulation 10 % ZEVs 4 % 6 % PZEVs ZEVs

  27. 1998:“Partial Credit” ZEV • SULEV exhaust emissions • Zero evaporative emissions • 15 year/ 150,000 mile emissions warranty • On-board diagnostics (OBD) • ZEV credit = 0.2 (6% / 0.2 credit =30% of new cars sold) • Additional credit for • HEVs • Alt. fuels

  28. PZEV TechnologyTailpipe Emissions • Dual wall (insulated) exhaust manifolds • Close coupled catalyst plus downstream catalysts w/integral adsorber(s) • Linear O2 sensor • Substantial retarded timing at cold start • Electric air injection at cold start • Enhanced durability - greater catalyst loading

  29. PZEV TechnologyEvaporative Emissions • Additional trap on canister vent • Carbon trap on engine inlet • Improved seals at joints/ junctions • Consolidation of parts to minimize junctions • Better materials • less permeation (steel, improved plastics) • greater durability

  30. Vehicle lifetime trend increasing- cars are lasting longer While vehicles may last longer, emissions systems may not necessarily remain effective “Emission reduction durability” is an intrinsic advantage of ZEVs (no tailpipe) and is why the extended warranty is part of PZEV Implications of 15year / 150k mile emissions warranty PZEV Emissions Reduction “Durability”

  31. 1997-1998: PNGV “Wake Up” Call • At October 1997 Tokyo Auto show, Toyota announces the Prius hybrid electric vehicle • First (modern) hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) for sale • Believed, in part, to be instigated by formation of PNGV

  32. Hybrid Electric Vehicles Honda Insight  Gasoline fueled  NiMH batteries  2-seat, 2-door  Meets ULEV standard Toyota Prius  Gasoline fueled  NiMH batteries  5-seat, 4-door  Meets SULEV standard

  33. Honda Hybrids

  34. (1.3L Engine only) Hybrid Electric Benefits

  35. 1998: Neighborhood EVs (NEVs)

  36. ZEV Range-Speed Graph Prototype FCEV ‘90s Full Function EV City EV NEV

  37. 1998: DOT Low Speed Vehicle (LSV) Category • USDOT established new Low Speed Vehicle (LSV) category in 1998 • Created due to increasing conflicts between state and federal law • LSV’s are in-between passenger car and golf carts • Rulemaking initiated in response to Bombardier, Inc. in 1996 • LSVs did not exist early on in ZEV regulation • Would meet definition of “motor vehicle”

  38. 1998:Neighborhood EVs (NEVs) • US DOT Low Speed Vehicle definition: • 4-wheel motor vehicle • Minimum 20 mph (32 kph) • Maximum 25 mph (40 kph) • DOT provides no powerplant definition, so • NEVs = LSVs that are zero emission • LSVs= Any vehicle meeting US 49 CFR Part 571

  39. 1998+: Neighborhood EV (NEV) • NEVs do very little to “push” EV technology development (-) Brushed DC Motors (-) Flooded (not sealed) lead acid batteries (+) Regenerative braking (some) • Air Quality Benefits • Vehicle miles traveled • Cold starts avoided

  40. 1999: GM EV1 Status • GM releases the GEN II EV1 • Motor & Controller now smaller and less costly to manufacture • Available with 2 choices in batteries: • “Standard”, “High Capacity” Panasonic lead-acid (replacing the Delco batteries used formerly), or • “Optional” Ovonic Nickel metal hydride

  41. Gen II EV1Battery Choice • Delco Advanced PbA vs. Panasonic PbA • GM’s use of its own Delco batteries had resulted in very high service costs due to frequently need for replacement • With Panasonic, range increased 50% and now met the vehicle specifications (70-90 miles), and reliability was greatly enhanced • Unclear whether battery difference was due to relaxation in specifications, or ?? • Substitution with Panasonic batteries was very successful

  42. 2000: Battery Panel Review • Nickel metal hydride • Demonstrated good characteristics and reliability with life expectancy exceeding 6 years • Real-life range of full size EV limited to 70-100 miles • Price in volume production estimated at $9,000 per pack

  43. 2000: Battery Panel Review • Lithium ion batteries • Did not yet have adequate durability • Safety not fully proven • In mass production, cost unlikely to drop below nickel metal hydride without major advances in: • materials • manufacturing

  44. September 2000: Air Resources Board Meeting • Reaffirmed commitment to the ZEV requirements • Directed staff to address: • Cost • Near-term vehicle availability • Market stability • Public education

  45. 2001: ZEV Amendments • Maintained core technology-forcing mandate • Phased in ZEV and PZEV requirements • Allowed further ZEV reduction if offset with Advanced Technology PZEVs (AT-PZEVs) • Segregated NEVs and assigned them fractional ZEV credit • Gradually increased future ZEV requirements

  46. 2001 ZEV Regulation PZEVs 10 % ZEVs 6 % 2 % ZEVs 2 % 2 % AT PZEVs

  47. 2001: Advanced Technologies Encouraged with AT-PZEVs • Technologies that potentially lead to ZEVs • Electric drive • ZEV Energy Storage • Hydrogen • High pressure tanks • Hydride storage • ??? • Batteries • Ultracapacators

  48. 2001: ZEV Litigation • Federal preemption lawsuit • Preliminary injunction issued June 2002, prohibiting ARB from enforcing the regulation in 2003 or 2004 model years • First state court lawsuit • Second state court lawsuit • Settlement agreement for all cases signed August 2003

  49. 2002: FreedomCAR • Announced in January 2002 • Cooperative research effort (composed of Ford, GM and DaimlerChrysler) • Aim at longer term goals - Hydrogen Fuel Cells - with some effort on nearer term technologies that offer early opportunities to save petroleum • Goal is to develop cars and trucks that are: • cheaper to operate, • pollution free, • competitively priced, & • free from imported oil

  50. Transition to Future Technologies • ATPZEV Option • introduces new ZEV technologies • encourages further development • volume production reduces costs • Prototype fuel cell vehicles now being demonstrated • California Fuel Cell Partnership • BEVs still likely in urban applications

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