10-15% of the Exam

1. 10-15% of the Exam

2. Parts of the earth's air, water, and soil where life is found Biosphere A community of different species interacting with one another and with their nonliving environment of matter and energy Ecosystem Populations of different species living in a particular place, and potentially interacting with each other Community Population A group of individuals of the same species living in a particular place An individual living being Organism The fundamental structural and functional unit of life Cell Chemical combination of two or more atoms of the same or different elements Molecule Smallest unit of a chemical element that exhibits its chemical properties Atom Fig. 3-3, p. 52

3. Fig. 4-2, p. 79

4. Community Interactions • Niche- the role of an organism, how it uses its resources in an ecosystem • Fundamental niche- potential or idealized niche of organism • Realized niche- lifestyle organism actually pursues and resources it actually uses • Habitat- local environment that organism lives in • Limiting resource- any environmental resource that, because it is scare or at unfavorable levels, restricts the ecological niche of an organism

5. Fig. 4-11, p. 91

6. Effect of competition on organisms realized niche The fundamental niches of the two lizards initially overlapped. Species 1 is green anole, Species 2 is brown anole The brown anole outcompeted the green anole, restricting its niche

7. Limiting Resource An organism is limited by any environmental resource that exceeds its tolerance or is less than its required minimum

8. Competition • Intraspecific- competition between two individuals of the same species • Interspecific- competition between two different species • Competitive exclusion- when two different species compete and the better adapted species wins • Gause’s principle- no two species can occupy same niche at same time. Species less fit will relocate, die out or occupy smaller niche

9. Example of competitive exclusion principle

10. Ruddy turnstone searches under shells and pebbles for small invertebrates Dowitcher probes deeply into mud in search of snails, marine worms, and small crustaceans Black skimmer seizes small fish at water surface Black skimmer seizes small fish at water surface Herring gull is a tireless scavenger Brown pelican dives for fish, which it locates from the air Avocet sweeps bill through mud and surface water in search of small crustaceans, insects, and seeds Flamingo feeds on minute organisms in mud Scaup and other diving ducks feed on mollusks, crustaceans, and aquatic vegetation Louisiana heron wades into water to seize small fish Oystercatcher feeds on clams, mussels, and other shellfish into which it pries its narrow beak Knot (sandpiper) picks up worms and small crustaceans left by receding tide Piping plover feeds on insects and tiny crustaceans on sandy beaches Specialized feeding niches, reduces competition Fig. 4-13, p. 93

11. Other types of species interactions • Predation- one species feeds on another and it is the force that drives changes in population sizes

12. More species interactions • Symbiotic- close prolonged associations between two or more different organisms of different species • Mutualism- both species benefit (clown fish, bees) • Commensalism- one benefits while other unaffected (epiphytes) • Parasitism- one species is harmed the other benefits (ticks)

13. How Ecosystems Change • Keystone species- presence contributes to an ecosystems diversity and whose extinction would consequently lead to the extinction of other forms of life. • Indicator species- used as a standard to evaluate the health of an ecosystem. • More sensitive to biological changes • Indigenous species- originate and live or occur naturally in an area or environment • Invasive species- introduced species

14. Examples Indicator Species- Frogs Keystone Species-a predator that feeds on herbivorous sea urchins allows kelps to flourish along the rocky coast, along with an entire ecosystem associated with these large marine plants. Zebra Mollusks- Great Lakes

15. Species Diversity • Species Richness: number of different species a community contains • Species Evenness: relative abundance of individuals within those species High species richness low species evenness Low species richness high species evenness

16. Species Rich Ecosystems tend to… • Be more productive • Be more sustainable and stable • Withstand stress and environmental disturbances better

17. Ecosystem Terms • Habitat Fragmentation- breakup of large areas of habitat into small, isolated patches • Urbanization • Agriculture • Edge effect- at ecotones there is greater species diversity and biological density • Theory of island biogeography- the number of species on an undisturbed island is determined by: immigration and extinction • Small islands support fewer species than large islands primarily because they have higher extinction rates. • Islands located near mainland tend to have more species primarily because they tend to have higher immigration rates.

18. Biome Facts • Biomeis a large geographical area characterized by certain types of plants and animals • Ecotone- where two biomes transition • Characteristics that determine types of organisms in biome • Type and availability of nutrients • Temperature • Availability of water • Sunlight • Climate • Law of Tolerance-the degree to which living organisms are capable of tolerating changes in their environment • Law of the Minimum- living organisms will continue to live, consuming available materials until the supply of these materials is exhausted.

19. Fig. 7-10, p. 147

20. Biomes

21. Biomes

22. DESERTS! Fig. 7-11, p. 149

23. GRASSLANDS! Fig. 7-12, p. 151

24. FORESTS Fig. 7-15, p. 154

25. Fig. 8-4, p. 165

26. SALTWATER BIOMES Fig. 8-5, p. 166

27. Fig. 8-14, p. 174

28. FRESHWATER LAKES Fig. 8-15, p. 175

29. FRESHWATER BIOMES Eutrophic Oligotrophic Stepped Art Fig. 8-16a, p. 175

30. Relationship Between Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration

31. Food Chain • Biotic Factors- Living things • Trophic level- energy/feeding level • Each level only 10% energy is passed (2nd Law of Thermodynamics) • Classified by how obtain food • Autotrophs- organisms produce their own organic and inorganic compounds • Heterotrophs- obtain food energy by consuming other organisms Food Chain

32. Food Web

33. Producers • Convert radiant energy or chemical energy into carbohydrates • Plants and algae • Make food through photosynthesis • H2O + CO2 + solar energy  carbohydrates + O2 • Chemotrophs- specialized anaerobic bacteria found in hydrothermal vents • Make food through chemosynthesis • O2 + H2S + O2 + energy  carbohydrates + S + H2O

34. Net Primary Productivity (NPP) • Amount of energy that plants pass on to the community of herbivores in an ecosystem. • Is a limiting factor for consumers • Gross Primary Productivity (GPP)- amount of carbohydrates that plants produce in photosynthesis • Rate at which producers are converting solar energy to chemical energy • Formula for NPP • GPP minus amount energy plants need to grow • Measured in kcal/m2/y

35. Estimated annual net primary productivity for selected ecosystems

36. Consumers • Must obtain food from secondary sources • Primary consumer- herbivores, consume only plants • Secondary consumer- consumes primary consumer • Tertiary consumer- consumes secondary consumer • Detritivores- consume nonliving organic matter such as dead animals and fallen leaves • Decomposers- bacteria and fungi that absorb nutrients from nonliving organic matter such as plant material, wastes of living organisms, and corpses.

37. Energy Pyramid • Second Law of Thermodynamics- the amount of usable energy available to do work decreases over time • Energy is lost in form of entropy (heat) • When you have an energy conversion only 10% of energy transfers over the rest is lost as entropy • Producers have the most energy in an ecosystem • Top level consumers have the least energy

38. Energy Pyramid

39. Biomagnification • Environmental toxins can flow through food chains • Pesticides (DDT, Dieldrin, Mirex) • PCBS • Heavy metals (Lead, Mercury, etc) • Dioxins- endocrine disrupters • Toxins are usually • Fat-soluble • Persistent- don’t break down easily • Bioaccumulation- accumulation of a substance in the fat tissue of organism • Biomagnification- increasing concentration of toxin molecules at successively higher trophic levels

40. Evolution • Change in a population’s genetic composition over time • Species- group of organisms that are capable of breeding with one another and incapable fo breeding with other species • Speciation- how new species are formed • Evolutionary fitness- individual organisms that are better adapted for their environment will live and reproduce, ensuring their genes are part of populations next generation (Charles Darwin)

41. A group of bacteria, including genetically resistant ones, are exposed to an antibiotic Eventually the resistant strain replaces the strain affected by the antibiotic The genetically resistant bacteria start multiplying Most of the normal bacteria die Normal bacterium Resistant bacterium Fig. 4-5, p. 83

42. How Evolution Works • Two ways evolution can go • Natural selection • Genetic Drift • Gene pool- total genetic makeup of a population • Microevolution- when population displays small scale changes over relatively short period of time • Macroevolution- large-scale patterns of evolution over long period of time • Extinction- species can’t adapt quick enough to environmental change and all members die

43. Natural Selection • When habitat selects certain organisms to live and reproduce and others to die • Frequency of favorable traits increases over successive generations • Adaptation- evolutionary modification of an individual that improves that individual’s chances of survival and reproductive success

44. Genetic Drift • Accumulation of changes in frequency of alleles over time due to chance • Picture is of three members cat family that separated due to continental drift. • Separated first as variations within a species, then as noticeable sub-species, and eventually as separate species. • Each of the animals portrayed is found on a different continent

45. Geographic isolation can lead to reproductive isolation, divergence of gene pools and speciation Arctic Fox Adapted to cold through heavier fur, short ears, short legs, and short nose. White fur matches snow for camouflage. Northern population Spreads north and south and separates Different environmental conditions lead to different selective pressures and evolution into two different species. Early fox population Gray Fox Adapted to heat through lightweight fur and long ears, legs, and nose, which give off more heat. Southern population Fig. 4-8, p. 87

46. NATURAL CAPITAL Natural Capital = Natural Resources + Natural Services Solar capital Air Air purification Renewable energy (sun, wind, water flows) Climate control UV protection (ozone layer) Life (biodiversity) Water Population control Water purification Waste treatment Pest control Nonrenewable minerals iron, sand) Land Soil Food production Soil renewal Natural gas Nutrient recycling Oil Coal seam Nonrenewable energy (fossil fuels) Natural resources Natural services Fig. 1-3, p. 8 Fig. 1-3, p. 8

47. Ecological Succession

48. Cycles in Nature • Biogeochemical Cycles- Carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur and water move through environment as solid, liquid and gas • Reservoir- Place where large quantity of nutrient sits for long period of time. Also known as sink • Energy driving cycles comes from • Sun • Heat from earth • Law of Conservation of Matter- matter can neither be created nor destroyed. • Means you never lose nutrients, they are always recycled

49. Carbon Cycle Terms • Respiration- animals breathe in oxygen and release CO2 into atmosphere. • Photosynthesis- plants take in CO2 to make glucose and release oxygen into atmosphere. • Fossil Fuels- when bodies of once-living organisms are buried and subjected to extreme heat and pressure they form oil, coal and gas. • Combustion- burning carbon containing matter which releases CO2 into atmosphere. • Reservoirs- Oceans, rocks (contain carbonate).

50. Carbon Cycle