KOGNITIF SAINS : Suatu bidang baru yang bersifat interdisipliner

1. APLIKASI KOGNITIF SAINS (APPLIED COGNITIVE SCIENCE) KOGNITIF SAINS : Suatu bidang baru yang bersifat interdisipliner Cognitive science is the interdisciplinary study of mind and intelligence, embracing philosophy, psychology, artificial intelligence, neuroscience, linguistics, and anthropology. Lahir pertengahan th. 1970 karena adanya pertanyaan yang sama diantara para ahli dibidang psikologi kognitif, komputer, liguistik, filsafat, syaraf (neurolog), dan antropologi. Pertanyaan tersebut adalah BAGAIMANA ALAM BERFIKIR MANUSIA? ( how is the nature of the human mind?) “… seeks to understand perceiving, thinking, remembering, understandinglanguage, learning, and other mental phenomena.” “… a basic science it seeks to discover highly general and explanatory fundamental principles of information processing.”

2. Usaha untuk memahami kerja dari alam berfikir manusia sudah dimulai sejak zaman Yunani: Plato dan Aritotelesthe nature of human knowledge FILSAFAT Abad –19 W.Wundt Laboratorium untuk mempelajari mental operations Psikologi Eksperimen J.B. Watson: meninjau dari hubungan S -- R Behaviorism TIDAK menerima aspek kesadaran (consciousness) dan representasi mental

3. short term dan long term memory Tahun 1956 George Miller Information Processing Theory John Mc.Carthy, Marvin Minsky, Allen Newell, dan Herbert Simon Artificial Intelligent Teknologi komputer dikenal Naom Chomski Linguist BAPAK COGNITIVE SCIENCE

4. Kognitif sains melihat alam berfikir manusia itu sebagai sesuatu yang kompleks yang melakukan perilaku menerima (receives), menyimpan(stores), menarik (retrieves), men-transformasi (transforms), dan men-transmisi (transmits) informasi.

5. INFORMASI Informasi dan proses pengolahan informasi itu dapat dipelajari pola maupun bentuk manupulasi dari pola tersebut. 65 simbol X 32 sejumlahaturan (rules) 130 algorithmatauformal procedures 195 2080 Dengan diketahui rules atau algorithmnya maka dapat diketahui bagaimana informasi itu di proses. “Simbol” dan “formal proses” diatas merupakan representasi dari sesuatu yang mempunyai arti di dunia nyata. Beda “informasi” dengan “data”…….”garbage in garbage out” (GIGO)

6. KETERPADUAN Hasil dari masing-masing bidang ilmu akan menjadi semacam input untuk bidang ilmu lain sehingga akan membantu untuk lebih mengerti alam berfikir manusia itu (the nature of the human mind) Misalnya temuan di bidang psikologi kognitif seperti persepsi, memori, proses pengolahan informasi, proses pengmabilan keputusan merupakan input yang berharga bagi ilmu komputer, khususnya dibidang AI (expert system). KULIAH INI Akan membahas isu-isu di bidang Psikologi Kognitif yang sebenarnya merupakan titik temu (overlapping areas) dengan bidang Ilmu Komputer. Artinya isu-isu apa saja atau hasil studi apa saja di bidang Psikologi Kognitif yang harus diketahui oleh para ahli di bidang Ilmu Komputer agar mereka dapat menghasilkan suatu produk teknologi yang cocok dan berguna bagi manusia.

7. APLIKASI • Human Information Processing vs. Machine Information Processing • Sistem pengambilan keputusan pada manusia vs. DSS (Decision Support System) • Cara berfikir seorang pakar vs. Expert system • Cara bekerja para manager vs. MIS (Management Information System) • Proses belajar manusia vs. CAI/CAL/CMC

8. PIAGET’S Cognitive-StageTheory

9. Biographical Sketch • Jean Piaget, lahir di Neuchatel, Switzerland thn. 1896 • Minat di masa remaja (10 th): mechanics, seashells, birds, & fossils

10. Konflik di masa remaja : agama vs. Scientific teaching ……. > baca buku2 Bergson, , Kant, Spencer, Durkheim dll……> menulis di bid. filsafat

11. Ph.D. di bid moluska (kerang), usia 21 th. • Bekerja dgn Theodore Simon dlm Binet’s Laboratory …. Mulai tertarik dgnHow children think. • Terbit lima buku: The Language and Thought of the Child (27 th),Judgement and Reasoning in the Child (28 th), The Child’s Conception of the World (30 th), the Child’s Conception of the Physical Causality (31 th), Moral Judgement of the Child (32 th).

12. Dikenal sebagai child psychologisttanpa pendidikan formal. • Mulai mengobservasi anaknya …… sample utama dari teorinya.

13. Genetic Epistemology • GE adalah cabang dari filsafat yg mempelajari knowledge • “…the problem of the relation between the acting or thinking subjects and objects of his experience”  • Genetic refers not to what is innate, …, but to the “development” or “emergence”

14. Piaget: • How do we come to know something? • Is objective knowledge unbiased by the nature of the knower, even possible? • Are there certain innate ideas, or must all knowledge be acquired? • Cara: By studying developmental changes in the process of knowing and in the organization of knowledge. Pendekatan: perkawinan antara filsafat & scientific method of logic and fact. Menolak armchair approach (filsafat) …. Dikenal experimental epistemologist

15. TEMUAN … knowledge is a process rather than a state. It is an event or a relationship between the knower and the known. … people construct knowledge. They have an active part in the process of knowing and even contribute to the form that knowledge takes place. Cognitive humans actively select and interpret information in the environment. They do not passively soak up information to build a storehouse of knowledge. Children’s knowledge of the world changes as their cognitive system develops. As the knower changes, so does the known.

16. Perkembangan dari satu tahap ke tahap lain di tentukan oleh kognitif proses yaitu: Asimilasi & Akomodasi Adaptasi (adaptation) Asimillasi (assimilation) “ … the way in which a child transforms new information so that it makes sense within their existing knowledge base. That is, a child tries to understand new knowledge in terms of their existing knowledge.” Akomodasi (accomodation) “ … a child changes his or her cognitive structure in an attempt to understand new information. E.g. the child learns to grasp a new object in a different way, or learns that the new object should not be sucked. In that way, the child has adapted his or her way of thinking to a new experience.”

17. Apa yang berubah? SCHEMA “an organized pattern of behavior, it reflects a particular way of interacting with environment” JADI:Proses kognitif asimilasi & akomodasi menyebabkan terjadinya proses perkembangan ADAPTASI EQUILIBIUM

18. Tahapan (stages) Sensorimotor Period (birth to 2 years) “… a child's cognitive system is limited to motor reflexes at birth, but the child builds on these reflexes to develop more sophisticated procedures. They learn to generalize their activities to a wider range of situations and coordinate them into increasingly lengthy chains of behavior.” Pre-Operational Thought (2 to 6/7 years) “ … children acquire representational skills in the areas mental imagery, and especially language. They are very self-oriented, and have an egocentric view; that is, preoperational children can use theserepresentational skills only to view the world from their own perspective”

19. Concrete Operations (6/7 to 11/12 years) “ … children in the concrete operations stage are able to take another's point of view and take into account more than one perspective simultaneously. They can also represent transformations as well as static situations. Although they can understand concrete problems, Piaget would argue that they cannot yet perform on abstract problems, and that they do not consider all of the logically possible outcomes.” Formal Operations (11/12 to adult) “Children who attain the formal operation stage are capable of thinking logically and abstractly. They can also reason theoretically. Piaget considered this the ultimate stage of development, and stated that although the children would still have to revise their knowledge base, their way of thinking was as powerful as it would get.”

20. Karakteristik Tahapan • A stage is a structured whole in a state of equilibrium • Each stage derives from the previous stage, incorporates and transforms that stage, and prepare for the next one. • The stages follow an invariant sequence • Stages are universal • Each stage includes a coming-into-being and a being

21. HCI (HUMAN COMPUTER INTERACTION) Human-computer interaction (HCI) is the study of interaction between people (users) and computers. It is an interdisciplinary subject, relating computer science with many other fields of study and research. Interaction between users and computers occurs at the user interface (or simply interface), which includes both hardware (i.e. peripherals and other hardware) and software (for example determining which, and how, information is presented to the user on a screen).

22. ASPEK DAN TUJUAN A. ASPEK INTERDISIPLINER Aesthetic, Antropology, Artificial Intelligence, Cognitive science, Design, Ergonomics, Human factors, Library and Information Sciences, Psychology, Social psychology dan Sociology B. TUJUAN • A basic goal of HCI is to improve interaction between user and computers, by making computers more user-friendly and easier to use. More broadly, HCI is also concerned with • methodologies and processes for designing interfaces • techniques for evaluating and comparing interfaces • developing new interfaces and interaction techniques • developing descriptive and predictive models and theories of interaction A longterm goal of HCI is to design computers that can be exploited to their fullest potential as instruments that enhance human creativity, liberate the human mind, and improve communication and cooperation between humans (see CSCW).

23. USER A user in computing context is one who uses a computer system. To use it, they have an account, and a user name, and peruse the user interface. COMPUTER A computer is a device or machine for making calculations or controlling operations that are expressible in numerical or logical terms. Computers are made from components that perform simple well-defined functions. The complex interactions of these components endow computers with the ability to process information. If correctly configured (usually by programming) a computer can be made to represent some aspect of a problem or part of a system. USER FRIENDLY Usability is a term used to denote the ease with which people can employ a particular tool or other human-made object in order to achieve a particular goal. Usability can also refer to the methods of measuring usability and the study of the principles behind an object's perceived efficiency or elegance.

24. Usability is the degree to which the design of a particular user interface takes into account the human psychology and physiology of the users, and makes the process of using the system effective, efficient and satisfying. Kaitandengan a. mental model, b. human action cycle, c. usability testing MENTAL MODEL A mental model is an explanation in someone's thought process for how something works in the real world. It is a kind of internal symbol or representation of external reality, hypothesised to play a major part in cognition.

25. The human action cycle is a psychological model which describes the steps humans take when they interact with computer systems The three stages of the human action cycle (goal formation, execution and evaluation). The model is divided into three stages of seven steps in total, and is (approximately) as follows: Goal formation stage 1. Goal formation. Execution stage 2. Translation of goals into a set of (unordered) tasks required to achieve the goal. 3. Sequencing the tasks to create the action sequence. 4. Executing the action sequence. Evaluation stage 5. Perceiving the results after having executed the action sequence. 6. Interpreting the actual outcomes based on the expected outcomes. 7. Comparing what happened with what the user wished to happen.

26. USABILITY TESTING • Time on Task-- How long does it take people to complete basic tasks? (For • example, find something to buy, create a new account, and order the item.) • Accuracy -- How many mistakes did people make? (And were they fatal or • recoverable with the right information?) • Recall -- How much does the person remember afterwards? • Emotional Response -- How does the person feel about the tasks • completed? (Confident? Stressed? Would the user recommend this system to • a friend?)

27. KAITAN DGN DISIPLIN ILMU LAIN Aesthetic, Antropology, Artificial Intelligence, Cognitive science, Design, Ergonomics, Human factors, Library and Information Sciences, Psychology,Social psychologydan Sociology • Modern AI is concerned with producing useful machines to automate human • tasks requiring intelligent behavior. • Cognitive Science is the scientific study of the mind and brain and how they • give rise to behavior. • Ergonomics (or human factors) is the scientific discipline concerned with • the understanding of interactions among humans and other elements of a • system, and contribute to the design and evaluation of tasks, jobs, products, • environments and systems in order to make them compatible with the • needs, abilities and limitations of people (IEA, 2000). • Human factors is an umbrella term for several areas of research that include • human performance, technology, design, and human-computer interaction. It • is a profession that focuses on how people interact with products, tools, • procedures, & any processes likely to be encountered in the modern world.

28. TERMINOLOGY • HCI vs CHI. The acronym CHI (pronounced kai), for computer-human interaction, now refer to their field of study as HCI (pronounced as an initialism), which perhaps rose in popularity partly because of the notion that the human, and the human's needs and time, should be considered first, and are more important than the machine's. The field of human-centered computing has emerged as an even more pronounced focus on understanding human beings as actors within socio-technical systems. • Usability vs Usefulness. Design methodologies in HCI aim to create user interfaces that are usable, i.e. that can be operated with ease and efficiency. However, an even more basic requirement is that the user interface be useful, i.e. that it allow the user to complete relevant tasks. • Intuitive and Natural. Software products are often touted by marketeers as being "intuitive" and "natural" to use, often simply because they have a graphical user interface. • Data Density and Information Absorption. The rapid growth in the density of computer screen real estate has created an opportunity to accelerate "information absorption" to much higher levels. Interfaces such as virtual reality will give further growth the potential density of information presented.

29. USER INTERFACE • The user interface is the aggregate of means by which people (the users) interact with a particular machine, device, computer program or other complex tool (the system). The user interface provides means of: A. Input, allowing the users to control the system B Output, allowing the system to inform the users (also referred to as feedback)

30. CSCW (Computer Supported Cooperation Work) • The term computer supported cooperative work (CSCW) "how collaborative activities and their coordination can be supported by means of computer systems." • Groupware are synonyms. Ellis (1993) defines groupware as "computer-based systems that support groups of people engaged in a common task (or goal) and that provide an interface to a shared environment." On the other hand, different authors claim that while groupware refers to real computer-based systems, CSCW focuses on the study of tools and techniques of groupware as well as their psychological, social, and organizational effects. • CSCW Support different time and place. == A lot of confusion in the field of CSCW raises from the different interpretations of the terms collaboration and cooperation. • The concept of cooperation is often used in relation to the concepts of coordination and communication. Examples : Videoconferencing, Messaging (Instant messaging, Email)

31. Untuk mewujudkan konsepsi komputer sebagai pengolah data untuk menghasilkan suatu informasi, maka diperlukan sistem komputer (computer system) yang elemennya terdiri dari hardware, software dan brainware. Ketiga elemen sistem komputer tersebut harus saling berhubungan dan membentuk kesatuan. Hardware tidak akan berfungsi apabila tanpa software, demikian juga sebaliknya. Dan keduanya tiada bermanfaat apabila tidak ada manusia (brainware) yang mengoperasikan dan mengendalikannya. A. Hardware atau Perangkat Keras: peralatan yang secara fisik terlihat dan bisa djamah. B. Software atau Perangkat Lunak: program yang berisi instruksi/perintah untuk melakukan pengolahan data. C. Brainware: manusia yang mengoperasikan dan mengendalikan sistem komputer

32. Ikon (Yunani) = image/gambar/simbol yang merepresentasikan suatu objek -> baru kemudian berkembang menjadi tulisan IKON SEBAGAI ANTARMUKA MANUSIA KOMPUTER Dalam HCI, ikon dimaksudkan sebagai IMAGE atau SIMBOL YANG MEREPRESENTASIKAN SUATU OPERASI/PERINTAH a. Ikon Piktorial untuk merepresentasikan informasi operasi semantik dan abstrak dengan gambar b. Ikon Simbol untuk merepresentasikan informasi operasi semantik dengan beberapa karakter

33. Pertimbangan dalammenciptakan ikon • KETERGANTUNGAN KULTUR/BUDAYA dan APLIKASI, gunakan simbol alami sesuai latarbelakang budaya • BENTUK MUDAH DIKENAL (easy recognition), makna yang tepat akan membantu mengingat dan mengidentifikasi ikon • BERBEDA DGN IKON LAIN DALAM 1 SISTEM, mudah dibedakan dan memiliki ciri yang khas dalam merefleksi-kan makna dari objek yang direpresentasikan KEUNTUNGAN DIGUNAKAN IKON SEBAGAI ANTARMUKA • Operasi akan lebih cepat daripada menuliskan kata-kata perintah • Untuk memahami arti semantik suatu ikon akan lebih cepat • Perinath-perintah atau operasi dengan ikon dapat dilakukan secara simultan