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EXPANSION IN THE 18TH CENTURY

EXPANSION IN THE 18TH CENTURY. AP Euro C.O. 10. I. The Agricultural Revolution (17 th and 18 th centuries) State of agriculture in 1700 Standard of living for peasants and artisans was about the same as in the Middle Ages

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EXPANSION IN THE 18TH CENTURY

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  1. EXPANSION IN THE 18TH CENTURY AP Euro C.O. 10

  2. I. The Agricultural Revolution (17th and 18th centuries) • State of agriculture in 1700 • Standard of living for peasants and artisans was about the same as in the Middle Ages • 80% of Western Europeans were farmers; higher percentage in Eastern Europe

  3. 3. Low agricultural output a. Medieval open-field systemwas prevalent b. Failed harvests occurred once or twice a decade resulting in famines c. People were malnourished and susceptible to illness d. Science was essentially a branch of theology and as of yet had no application to agriculture

  4. 4. Open field system a. Common lands were open and strips of land for agriculture were not divided by fences or hedges. b. Open fields were farmed as a community. c. Exhaustion of soil was a common problem d. 1/3 to ½ of lands lay fallow on any given year for the soil to recover

  5. The Open Field System

  6. e. Villages maintained open meadows for hay and natural pasture f. Peasants were often taxed heavily g. Peasants in eastern Europe were far worse off

  7. 5. 18th century: England, Netherlands and France became leaders for increased agriculture, industry and trade resulting in population growth

  8. B. Features of the Agricultural Revolution 1. Increased food production: increased crop and animal yields fed more people. 2. New methods of cultivation: crops were now grown on reclaimed wastelands and uncultivated common lands 3. Selective breeding of livestock: led to better cultivation due to healthier animals

  9. C. Science and technology was applied to agriculture 1. Low Countries led the way a. Population growth meant increased production was necessary b. By mid-17th century, the Dutch enclosed fields, rotated crops, heavily fertilized, and planted wide varieties of crops -- A free and capitalistic society provided incentives

  10. c. Drainage -- Much of Holland had been marshlands or under sea waters -- Dutch became world leaders in reclaiming wetlands through drainage -- Cornelius Vermuyden: most famous of Dutch engineers in drainage -- Drainage later used extensively in southern England

  11. 2. England • By 1870 crop yields had tripled since 1700 with only a 14% increase in people working the land.

  12. b. Crop rotation pioneered by Viscount Charles Townshend • Applied Dutch techniques of crop rotation using nitrogen-rich crops: turnips, peas, beans, clover, potatoes • Nicknamed “Turnip Townsend” • Drained much land in England • Enriched soil and provided food for livestock • Manure was used for fertilizer

  13. c. Increased food for livestock meant mass slaughter of animals was no longer needed before winter d. By 1740, new agricultural techniques had become popular among much of the English aristocracy Viscount Charles Townshend (1674-1738) brought Dutch agricultural techniques to England

  14. e. JethroTull(1674-1741) • Good example of how the empiricism of the scientific revolution was applied to agriculture • His seed drill (1701)allowed for sowing of crops in a straight row rather than scattering it by hand • Used horses for plowing rather than slower oxen

  15. Jethro Tull: seed drill

  16. The seed drill was later developed on a much larger scale to seed multiple rows simultaneously.

  17. d. Robert Bakewell(1725-1795) pioneered selective breeding of livestock • Larger and healthier animals resulted • Moremeat, wool, milk, leather, soap and candle tallow • More manure available for fertilizer

  18. D. New foods: the Columbian Exchange resulted in a revolution in diet for Europeans 1. New foods from the New World became increasingly available in the 17th and 18th century 2. Potatoes and corn became staple crops: highly nutritious and easy to grow

  19. ,

  20. Enclosure movement in England 1. First enclosure began in 16th century a. Landowners sought to increase profits from wool production by enclosing fields for raising sheep b. Differed from 18th century enclosures that were geared towards agriculture

  21. 2. Intensified in the 18th century a. End to the open-field system • Landowners consolidated their scattered holdings into compact fields that were fenced • Common pasture lands were also enclosed

  22. Arial View of Enclosure

  23. b. Resulted in the commercialization of agriculture • Large landowners prospered and invested in technology (machinery, breeding, cultivation methods • Increase in number of large and medium-sized farms

  24. The Transition from Pre-Enclosure to Enclosure Typical English Community BEFORE enclosure acts Typical English Community AFTER enclosure acts Key Barron’s Land Rich Farmer’s Land 2nd Rich Farmer’s land Common Land Small Farmers’ lands

  25. Appleby, England: Before and After Enclosure Appleby c. 1800 Appleby c. 1550

  26. Parliament passed over 300 enclosure acts in the late-18th and early-19th centuries that benefited large landowners • 1815, Corn Laws passed to benefit landowners

  27. 3. Enclosure’s impact on the peasantry a. Many were forced off lands that had once been common b. Many moved to towns or cities looking for work • Many found work in factories or joined workhouses (poorhouses) c. Many became impoverished farm laborers on large farms

  28. d. Some were freed up to pursue other economic opportunities, such as the cottage industry e. Women had no way to raise animals on common lands for extra money

  29. 4. Impact on women a. Women before Enclosure had been an indispensable part of a household’s economic survival. b. Enclosure forced women (and men) off the land. c. After enclosure opportunities were much more limited. d. Daughters were pushed out of the household sooner.

  30. e. Young women increasingly went to towns or cities for work in domestic industries or prostitution. f. Some families managed to survive in the countryside by supplementing their income via the cottage industry (mostly for spinning and weaving). • Women played an important role spinning and weaving.

  31. 5. A strict hierarchical society emerged a. A few large landowners (gentry) dominated the economy and politics. b. A few strong, prosperous tenant farmers rented land. c. Some small, independent peasant farmers owned land. d. A large mass of landless peasants worked as wage workers on farms or as cottagers.

  32. 6. Struggles between landlords and peasants occurred • Game laws were passed on behalf of landowners whereby any animals on owners’ vast lands could not be hunted for food • Peasants who were without food would risk severe punishment if they were caught hunting for food on an owner’s land

  33. 7. Historical debate over the enclosure movement a. Traditional view • Enclosures pushed thousands of peasants out the countryside or resulted in abject poverty for those who remained. • Theory put forth by the socialist Karl Marx in the 19thcentury

  34. b. Resent research • Negative effects exaggerated • Many remained as prosperous tenant farmers, small landowners or wage earners. • As much as 50% percent of England’s farmland was already enclosed by 1750. • 1700: ratio of two landless laborers for every self-sufficient farmer; ratio not significantly larger by 1750 • Mutual agreements occurred

  35. 8. Enclosure did not spread to western Europe a. France did not have national enclosure policy and local peasants resisted it after 1760 b. Eastern Europe did not see fundamental agricultural changes until the 19th century

  36. D. Impact of the Agricultural Revolution 1. Population explosion in the 18th century 2. Enclosure fundamentally altered rural society a. Common lands enclosed b. Widespread migration to towns and cities c. Women adversely affected 3. Cottage industry emerged 4. Lower food prices = more money for consumer goods

  37. II. Population explosion A. Limits on population growth prior to 1700 -- Famine, disease, warfare B. Causes for growth after 1700 1. Agricultural Revolution 2. New crops: potatoes and corn 3. Improved transportation 4. Better diets led to stronger immune systems 5. Plague disappeared after 1720 6. Improved sanitation 7. 18th century wars were less destructive 8. Medical advances NOT a cause

  38. Population growth reached a plateau between 1650 and 1750 but took off after 1750 • Between 1700 and 1800, European pop. increased from 120 million to about 190 million

  39. A. Rural industry became a major part of Europe’s growing economy Rural population was eager to supplement its income Merchant-capitalists in cities were eager to draw on cheap labor in the countryside 3. Thus early industrialism was “put out” into the countryside 4. Manufacturing with hand tools in peasant cottages came to challenge urban craft industry III. Proto-Industrialization: the Cottage Industry (“Putting-out system”)

  40. B. Cottage Industry 1. Merchant-capitalists provided raw materials to rural families who produced products or semi- finished products and sent them back to the merchant for payment. 2. Merchants sold the products for profit. 3. Wool cloth was most important.

  41. 4. The Cottage Industry was essentially a family enterprise a. Work of 4 or 5 spinners needed to keep one weaver steadily employed b. Husband and wife constantly tried to find more thread and spinners -- “Spinsters” c. Sometimes families subcontracted work to others

  42. A typical cottage industry home with the father weaving (right) while his wife and daughter spin thread.

  43. 5. Problems with the Cottage Industry a. Constant disputes between cottagers and merchants over weights of materials and quality of cloth b. Rural labor was unorganized and usually difficult for merchants to control c. Merchant desire for more efficient production led to the rise of factories and the industrial revolution

  44. C. Results 1. Thousands of poor rural families were able to supplement their incomes. 2. Unregulated production in the countryside resulted in experimentation and diversification of goods. -- Textiles, knives, forks, housewares, buttons, gloves, clocks, and musical instruments

  45. D. Cottage industry flourished first in England 1. Spinning and weaving of wool cloth was most important 2. In 1500, ½ of England’s textiles were produced in the countryside 3. By 1700, the percentage was higher 4. “Putting out” system later spread to Continental countries (e.g. France and Germany)

  46. E.Proto-industrial technology • 1733, John Kay: flying shuttle enabled a weaver to throw the shuttle back and forth on a loom with one hand flying shuttle video clip

  47. b. 1764, James Hargreaves invented the spinning jenny which mechanized the spinning wheel so that eight spools of thread could be spun simultaneously

  48. Later, improvements were made to the spinning jenny that enabled the number of threads spun on a single machine to be increased to eighty.

  49. IV. Mercantilism and the Atlantic Economy • European maritime expansion in the 18th century • World trade became fundamental to the European economy. a. Sugar was most important; also tobacco, cotton, and indigo b. The slave trade was enormous.

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