The Prophet's Wars: Arab Conquests during the Time of Muhammad

1. Battling for Islam (622-652): January 16-20

2. ‘The Prophet’s Wars’ This Week: ‘Arab Conquests’ during time of Muhammad*, First Three Caliphs [Abu Bakr (632-4), ‘Umar I (634-44), ‘Uthman (644-56)]**Monday: I ‘The Prophet’s Wars’ (622-43)**Wednesday: II Expansion: ‘Jewel in the crown –Egypt’Friday: III “Empire of Faith?”: conquest to governance *using Hoyland’s spelling. Also written in other ways in various sources – e.g. Muhammed, Mohmmad, Mohamed** Hoyland does not use the term ‘Rashidun’ used elsewhere (e.g. on maps); Umar’s battles subsumed here to first stage ‘Prophet’s Wars’

3. Expansion Westward: Egypt Part II The ‘Jewel in the Crown’:Expansion into Egypt(640-642)

4. ‘World’ c.626

5. ‘World’ c. 650

6. Setting the Scene: c.640 Byzantine Empire: army depleted (plague, defeats in Levant) Heraclius instructed garrisons/troops not to engage Arabs directly meanwhile, cities and towns continued to ‘fall’: military defeat or negotiated surrender

7. Setting the Scene: c.640 Byzantine Empire: 541 Emperor Heraclius died succession dispute: son (by second wife) favoured‘negotiating peace’ with Arabs vs. Grandson (10 yrs old) represented by general who favoured war

8. Setting the Scene: c.640 Byzantine Empire: Grandson/General successful: but continued military failures put general out of favour (hanged by mob) Empire left in hands of child at critical moment

9. Setting the Scene: c.640 Persia: Emperor Yazdgird literally on the run after Battle of Qadisiyya wealthiest part of empire (Jazira) in hands of Arabs Empire ceased to function as ‘integral entity’: local chiefs, nobles made private agreements with Arabs negotiated to keep as much of personal/family wealth and power as possible

10. Setting the Scene: c.640 Persia: Example: local ‘potentates’ exempted from the taxes everyone paid to the Arabs* in exchange for allying with Arabs against any local uprisings, enemies. * note: importance of ‘control’ was not just political it had real economic value through tax structure)

11. Setting the Scene: c.640 Persia: some sought Arab ‘allies’ to deal with old enemies, new competitors Also: Arabs astute at ‘divide and rule’ tactics Wide variety of situations – all marked disintegration of ‘empire’ per se, expansion of Arab influence without necessarily political or administrative control

12. Setting the Scene: c.640 Arab Caliphate: [Hoyland] have little contemporary documentation main source Sebeos(Armenian): says military commander based in Damascus while ‘king’ (Caliph) resided in ‘Arabia’. from summer of 634, ‘king’ was Umar ibn al-Khattab (Sebeos): ’when the Arabs marched out from the desert, their King did not go with them’

13. Setting the Scene: c.640 Arab Caliphate: religious, political decisions lay in Caliph’s hands (according to later sources) clear that day-to-day decisions and military strategy lay with Commander in Damascus Mu’awyia: son of Abu Sufyan ibn Harb, the influential Meccan whose daughter Muhammad had married

14. Setting the Scene: c.640 Arab Caliphate: [Hoyland]: points out that Abu Sufyan was of the Umayyad clan Muhammed’s cousin ‘Uthman became 3rd Caliph (644-56) Umayyadshad ‘taken firm hold of the reigns of the conquest enterprise from very early date’ -- well before Umayyad Caliph officially in place with Mu’awiya in 661

15. Expansion Westward: Egypt Egypt: ‘Jewel in crown of Byzantine empire’ Nile River flood lands, large population ‘breadbasket’ of empire: 300million bushels grain annually delivered to Constantinople extremely lucrative tax revenues

16. Expansion Westward: Egypt unlike other parts of Empire, had been more or less at peace Exception: Persian ‘onslaught’ 617-19

17. Expansion Westward: Egypt [Hoyland]: non-Muslim sources show Heraclius ordering armies from Tunisia (633) and Libya (?) to assist Egypt against Arab raids: suggests activity before main conquest: surprisingly, no mention in Muslim sources –so don’t know who, exactly, or why might have just been raids seeking plunder in search of booty, slaves

18. Expansion Westward: Egypt Was ill-prepared for Arab attacks in 640-42 Caliph Umar: armies led by Amr ibn al-As (from related clan to Mu’awyia – important in terms of ‘clan’ influence)

19. Expansion Westward: Egypt Main source for Egyptian Conquest: ‘John of Nikiu’ (Coptic Christian Bishop): covers 640-43 (chronicle deals with time from Creation)[see additional rdgs] (other sources): army left Palestine 639, marched westward, secured trail behind turned south towards Babylon (suburb of Cairo): Chronicle picks up story

20. Expansion Westward: Egypt Two armies: Amr’s in north another approached from south looks to have crossed Red sea,followed Nile north: poised to join main army at Babylon problem: southern army on west side of river, Amr’s on east: did not want to attack Babylon (main Byzantine garrison) without full army

22. Expansion Westward: Egypt Staged battle to north east: Heliopolis (640) Hoyland describes strategy: drew out Byantine army, Amr divided his own into three entrapped Byzantines: successful First victory in Egypt – also in Africa: Islam no longer only an Asian religion

23. Expansion Westward: Egypt Consequences [Hoyland]: clear Arabs here to stay: Chronicle says ‘everyone fled’ to Alexandria (north sea port) commander in rich southern oasis Fayum fled to Nikiu: southern army took wealthy fertile region

24. Expansion Westward: Egypt Chronicle: people beginning to ‘help’ the Arabs some even ‘apostasizing’ – not popular but clearly many ready to put practicalities ahead of religion Why?

25. Expansion Westward: Egypt People taking up ‘faith of the beast’ (Chronicle): typical of ‘world’ in late 6th, early 7th century loyalty to particular religion (Christianity, Judaism, other) susceptible to weakness in face of stronger army integration religious faith and military power/wealth .

26. Expansion Westward: Egypt Mistake to think ‘Islam’ won over these people armies professing the Islamic faith showed themselves to be the more powerful ‘patron’: real sense that those who God favoured, prospered to become Muslim could not be all bad Rhetoric about ‘righteousness’; reality for ‘normal people’ was material well-being and security

27. Expansion Westward: Egypt Unlike earlier conquests, Egyptian towns didn’t fall like dominoes: many in delta region protected by water: Arab horses could not navigate others strongly fortified, did not capitulate (e.g. Nikiu – home of Bishop John) Arabs in first year made few inroads in north – battled constantly but mostly unsuccessfully

28. Expansion Westward: Egypt Babylon: main target of Babylon remained in Byzantine hands in 641 5 hectares in size, walls more than 15 meters high,3 meters thick, with circular towers 30 meters in diameter Nile river came right to walls; small port allowed access to Byzantines

29. Expansion Westward: Egypt Arabs waited until flood waters receded, laid siege to town: lacked means to breach fortification: worked on undermining moral built bridge across water that blocked passage of supply ships from Alexandria arrested officials, publicly displayed them in irons, attacked Byzantine soldiers burned crops, destroyed possessions

30. Expansion Westward: Egypt Ultimate blow : death of Heraclius 641 and ensuing succession dispute: meant no help likely from that quarter in foreseeable future April 641, after 7 months siege: Babylon surrendered with promise from ‘Amr that soldiers would be spared

31. Expansion Westward: Egypt Alexandria: summer of 642 began siege historians debate issue: some say that anti-Chalcedonians (like Chronicler John)* welcomed, helped Arabs – only Chalcedonians rejected Arabs [Hoyland]: no proof of this -- Chronicle never suggests supporting Arabs ‘were in any way well disposed to them’ * those who rejected Council Chalcedon 451

32. Expansion Westward: Egypt Only important divide: those who supported seeking peace vs. those who refused Heraclius’ older son promised to send more troops to Byzantine Commander Theodore; then he died younger brother reversed decision: reappointed Cyrus (Chalcedonian) who had been removed from position c 630 for supporting appeasement

33. Expansion Westward: Egypt In 641 Cyrus negotiated ‘Babylon agreement’: Alexandra paid heavy tribute in gold Byzantines given one year to get troops, equipment, possessions out of Alexandria Arabs would not to interfere with ‘Christian affairs’ refugees in Alexandria allowed to return home Jews permitted to stay.

34. Expansion Westward: Egypt September 642: Theodore left Alexandria ‘Amr ibn al-As entered the city ‘the Arabs took possession of Egypt’, ending 1000 yrs of Roman-Byzantine control, beginning Muslim control that would last even longer [Hoyland] people lamented only that they ‘had lost God’s favour’ End of John of Nikiu’s Chronicle

35. Expansion Westward: Egypt Last efforts to retake Egypt: (from other sources) know that in 645, 300 ships sent to Alexandria provoked local revolt against Arabs Byzantines successful but next year retaken back by Arabs [had significant consequences – see ‘Cyprus’ below]

36. Expansion from Egypt:South Nubia: Attempts to conquer failed miserably (‘Nubian Archers’): Agreement reached: Nubians left autonomous in exchange for tribute First mention of ‘slaves’ from Africa in sources:Nubians to provide one-slave-per-day in return for foodstuffs (from north)

37. Expansion from Egypt: South Commerce to continue between regions -- especially important along Nile River suggestion from sources: Arabs had taken to kidnapping/selling Nubians as slaves as important part of commerce Nubians appear to have created more powerful political alliances to defend themselves

38. Expansion from Egypt: South Failure to conquer Nubia may have protected Ethiopia: Armies could have come across Red Sea but no evidence that they did Surprising, given earlier Ethiopian rule over southern part of Yemen [last lecture] Overall, expansion southward limited to (slave) raiding

39. Expansion from Egypt: West Libya: According to Chronicle: agreement no sooner made with Cyrus in Alexandria than ‘Amr took troops west along coastal plain to Cyrenacia Governor of province holed up in fortified town in mountains Troops plundered, took captives but did not establish permanent control/administration settled for agreement to pay tribute

40. Expansion from Egypt: West ‘Amr said to have encountered fierce Berber nomads (who had earlier launched resistance against Byzantines): again, did not try to conquer Negotiated annual tribute that involved “selling which ever of their children they wished” Importance here: seems to be indirect reference to slave trade out of Africa – in this case, would have provoked growth in trade in order to pay tribute, generating long term consequences. . .

41. Expansion from Egypt: West Chronicle of John of Nikiu ends 643: other sources speak of 647: another westward movement as far as ‘Ifriqiyya’ – Tunisia/eastern Algeria Seat of Christian Count Gregory who had set himself up as emperor of last piece of Byzantine empire (had coins minted in his name)

42. Expansion from Egypt: West Very rich area, fertile, known for olive oil (much valued): Arabs successfully battled Gregory and African allies) BUT again did not stay: took booty and payment ‘to not return’ Actually, no base established in North Africa outside of Egypt

43. Expansion from Egypt: Cyprus Cyprus: Mu’awiyarealized that ease with which Byzantines sailed into Alexandria harbour645/6 meant Arabs needed fleet to protect city used forced labour (‘press-ganged’, slave) to build fleet 3 years later decided to ‘test’ it on island of Cyprus

44. Expansion from Egypt: Cyprus 1700 ships sailed to island: [Hoyland tells story]: they waited for island to surrender; when it did not -- went ahead with land assault It is said that island had not realized these were Arabs (‘ships’ usually meant Byzantines), so they did not organize opposition until too late Island very wealthy: able to collect gold and silver and slaves, enough to keep both armies happy (Egyptian and Syrian)

45. Expansion from Egypt: Cyprus [seemingly soon after] Byzantines sent troops to Cyprus to ‘hold’ it for empire 650: another Arab force returned, took control of main cities Byzantines unable to protect local population Arabs gave them choice to leave for other parts of empire or stay – they would not be harmed.

46. Expansion from Egypt: Cyprus Took all the (property) wealth Said to have taken 170000 slaves over two years [but if local population ‘unharmed’ – who were slaves? That many on island?] Hoyland suggests numbers exaggerated; nevertheless ‘significant’ Important: again emphasizes how important plunder was to these ‘attacks’ – idea of spreading Islam not really apparent!!

47. Rashidun Empire 654