B0H4M

1. B0H4M CHAPTER 14

2. 14.1 Individual Needs and Motivation • Types of content theories: • Hierarchy of needs theory • ERG theory • Two-factor theory • Acquired needs theory

3. Motivation and individual needs • Motivation—the forces within the individual that account for the level, direction, and persistence of effort expended at work. • Needs • Unfulfilled physiological and psychological desires of an individual. • Explain workplace behaviour and attitudes. • Create tensions that influence attitudes and behaviour. • Good managers and leaders facilitate employee need satisfaction.

4. Hierarchy of needs theory • Developed by Abraham Maslow. • Lower-order and higher-order needs affect workplace behavior and attitudes. • Lower-order needs: • Physiological, safety, and social needs. • Desires for physical and social well being. • Higher-order needs: • Esteem and self-actualization needs. • Desire for psychological growth and development.

5. ERG theory • Developed by Clayton Alderfer. • Three need levels: • Existence needs — desires for physiological and material well-being. • Relatedness needs — desires for satisfying interpersonal relationships. • Growth needs — desires for continued psychological growth and development.

6. Two-factor theory • Developed by Frederick Herzberg. • Hygiene factors: • Elements of the job context. • Sources of job dissatisfaction. • Satisfier factors: • Elements of the job content. • Sources of job satisfaction and motivation.

7. Acquired needs theory • Developed by David McClelland. • People acquire needs through their life experiences. • Needs that are acquired: • Need for Achievement(nAch) • Need for Power(nPower) • Need for Affiliation(nAff)

8. 14.2 Process theories of motivation • How people make choices to work hard or not. • Choices are based on: • Individual preferences. • Available rewards. • Possible work outcomes. • Types of process theories: • Equity theory. • Expectancy theory. • Goal-setting theory. • Self-efficacy theory.

9. Equity Theory • Developed by J. Stacy Adams. • When people believe that they have been treated unfairly in comparison to others, they try to eliminate the discomfort and restore a perceived sense of equity to the situation. • Perceived inequity. • Perceived equity. • People respond to perceived negative inequity by changing: Work inputs, Rewards received, Comparison points, Situation.

10. Expectancy Theory • Developed by Victor Vroom. • Key expectancy theory variables: • Expectancy — belief that working hard will result in desired level of performance. • Instrumentality — belief that successful performance will be followed by rewards. • Valence —value a person assigns to rewards and other work related outcomes. • Motivation (M), expectancy (E), instrumentality (I), and valence (V) are related to one another in a multiplicative fashion: M = E x I x V • If either E, I, or V is low, motivation will be low.

11. Goal-setting theory • Developed by Edwin Locke. • Properly set and well-managed task goals can be highly motivating. • Motivational effects of task goals: • Provide direction to people in their work. • Clarify performance expectations. • Establish a frame of reference for feedback. • Provide a foundation for behavioural self-management.

12. Self-Efficacy Theory • a person’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task • Capability directly affects motivation • higher self-efficacy will have higher expectancy. • self-efficacy is linked to performance goal setting. • Enactive mastery – person gains confidence through positive experience • Vicarious modeling – learning by observing others • Verbal persuasion – encouragement from others that one can perform a task • Emotional arousal – high stimulation or energy to perform well in a situation

13. 14.3 Reinforcement Theory pf Motivation • Law of effect — impact of type of consequence on future behavior. • Operant conditioning: Applies law of effect to control behavior by manipulating its consequences.

14. Operant conditioning strategies: • Positive reinforcement • Increases the frequency of a behaviour through the contingent presentation of a pleasant consequence. • Negative reinforcement • Increases the frequency of a behaviour through the contingent removal of an unpleasant consequence. • Punishment • Decreases the frequency of a behaviour through the contingent presentation of an unpleasant consequence. • Extinction • Decreases the frequency of a behaviour through the contingent removal of an pleasant consequence.

15. Successful implementation of positive reinforcement is based on • Law of contingent reinforcement— • Reward delivered only if desired behaviour is exhibited. • Law of immediate reinforcement— • More immediate the delivery of a reward, the more reinforcement value it has.

16. 14.4 Motivation and Job design • Job • A collection of tasks performed in support of organizational objectives. • Job design • The process of creating or defining jobs by assigning specific work tasks to individuals and groups. • Jobs should be designed so that both performance and satisfaction result.

17. Job simplification. • Standardizing work procedures and employing people in well-defined and highly specialized tasks. • Simplified jobs are narrow in job scope and low in job depth. • Automation. • Total mechanization of a job. • Most extreme form of job simplification.

18. Job rotation and job enlargement: • Expands job scope. • Job rotation. • Increases task variety by periodically shifting workers among jobs involving different task assignments. • Job enlargement. • Increases task variety by combining two or more tasks previously assigned to separate workers. • Horizontal loading.

19. Job enrichment. • Building more opportunities for satisfaction into a job by expanding its content. • Expands both job scope and job depth. • Frequently accomplished through vertical loading.

20. Core job characteristics: • Skill variety. • Task identity. • Task significance. • Autonomy. • Feedback.

21. Improving core job characteristics: • Form natural units of work. • Combine tasks. • Establish client relationships. • Open feedback channels. • Practice vertical loading.

22. Flexible working hours. • Any work schedule that gives employees some choice in the pattern of their daily work hours. • Core time — all employees must be at work. • Flextime — allows employees to schedule around personal and family responsibilities. • Compressed workweek

23. Job sharing. • One full-time job is split between two or more persons. • Telecommuting. • A work arrangement that allows a portion of scheduled work hours to be completed outside of the office. • Hoteling. • Virtual offices.

24. Potential advantages of telecommuting • Freedom from • Constraints of commuting. • Fixed hours. • Special work attire. • Direct contact with supervisors. • Increased productivity. • Fewer distractions. • Being one’s own boss. • Having more personal time. Management 2e - Chapter 14

25. Potential disadvantages of telecommuting • Working too much. • Having less personal time. • Difficulty in separating work and personal life. • Less time for family. • Feelings of isolation. • Loss of visibility for promotion. • Difficulties supervising work-at-home employees from a distance. Management 2e - Chapter 14

26. Part-time work. • Work done on any schedule less than the standard 40-hour workweek and does not qualify person as a full-time employee. • Contingency workers • Part-time workers who supplement the full-time workforce, often on a long-term basis. • Now constitute 30 percent of the American workforce. Management 2e - Chapter 14

27. Implications of part-time work: • Provides employers with flexibility in controlling labour costs and dealing with cyclical labour demands. • Temporary workers may lack commitment and be less productive. • Contingency workers are often paid less and don’t receive important fringe benefits. Management 2e - Chapter 14