Lecture Eight Strategies for Informative and Explanatory Writings

1. Lecture EightStrategies for Informative and Explanatory Writings Writing to Explain What –Writing Material Analysis

3. Questions for Discussion • Do you think that a high IQ score guarantees a person’s success? Why (not)? 2. What terms or expressions do we have in Chinese (and Eng­lish) that pertain to the mentally retarded? Can you list them? Do you think these expressions are accurate or re­flect prejudice and a lack of understanding of this phe­nomenon? Do you know anyone who is suffering from mental retardation?

6. Questions for Discussion 3. Do you think mentally retarded children should be integrated into regular classrooms (mainstreaming) or taught separately? Why? Can you give at least three reasons to support your position?

7. Questions for Critical Thinking, Discussion, and Writing • What is the primary purpose of this essay? • What do you think about the style of this essay? • How is the essay organized? (What is the main method used for organization and Overall, How many parts can the essay be divided into ?) • How do you like the beginning? What if the essay began with paragraph 3?

8. “Falling Below the Norm: Mental Retardation” is excerpted from Understanding Psychology by Robert S. Feldman (McGraw-Hill, 1990). Falling Below the Norm: Mental Retardation Robert S. Feldman 1 Bill never liked school all that much. For the first few years he managed to get by, although his parents had to push hard to get him to do a minimally acceptable level of first-and second-grade work. He always seemed slower at learning things that the other kids had no trouble with, and — while he wasn't exactly a poorly behaved child— his attention span was short and he had trouble following what was going on in class. He also seemed tired much of the time, but a physical examination ruled out (exclude) any medical problems. His teachers began to suspect he was simply lazy and unmotivated, though he did, on occasion, show great interest in lessons that involved working with his hands. Finally, out of desperation, his teachers and parents arranged for him to be evaluated by a psychologist. To their surprise they found out he had an IQ of 63 — so far below average that his fell into the range of IQ scores classified as mentally retarded. 2 Bills is one of more than 6.5 million in the United States who have been identified as having intelligence far enough below average to regard it as a serious deficit.

9. 3 Although sometimes thought of as a rare phenomenon, mental retardation occurs in 1 to 3 percent of the population. There is wide variation among those labeled as mentally retarded — in large part because of the inclusiveness of the definition developed by the American Association on Mental Deficiency. The association suggests that mental retardation exists when there is “significantly subaverage general intellectual functioning existing concurrently with deficits in adaptive behavior and manifested during the developmental period” (Grossman, 1983). What this means is that people classified as mentally retarded can range from individuals whose performance differs little in a qualitative sense from those with higher IQs, to those who virtually cannot be trained and who must receive institutional treatment throughout their lives (Reynolds & Mann, 1987). 4 Most mentally retarded people have relatively minor deficits and are classified as mildly retarded. These individuals have IQ scores ranging from 55 to 69, and they constitute some 90 per­cent of all retarded individuals. Although their development is typically slower than that of their peers, they can function quite independently by adulthood and are able to hold jobs and have families of their own.

10. 5 At greater levels of retardation -- moderate retardation (IQs of 40 – 54 ), severe retardation (IQs of 25 to 39), and profound retardation (IQs below 25) -- the difficulties are more pronounced. With the moderately retarded, deficits are obvious early, with language and motor skills lagging behind those of peers. Although these people can hold simple jobs, they need to have a moderate degree of supervision throughout their lives. The severely and profoundly retarded are generally unable to function independently. Often they have no language ability, poor motor control, and even an inability to be toilet-trained. These people are typically institutionalized for their entire lives. 6 What are the causes of mental retardation? In nearly one-third of the cases there is a known biological cause, the most common being Down's Syndrome. Down's Syndrome, which was once referred to as mongolism because the facial configuration of those with the disorder had an oriental appearance, is caused by the presence of an extra chromosome. Birth complications, such as a temporary lack of oxygen, may also cause retardation.

11. 7 The majority of cases of mental retardation are classified as familial retardation. In familial retardation there is no known biological defect but a history of retardation within the person's family. Whether that history is caused by environmental factors— such as extreme, continuous poverty leading to malnutrition —or by some underlying genetic factor inherited from one's parents is usually impossible to determine for certain. What is characteristic of familial retardation is the presence of more than one retarded person in the immediate family. 8 Regardless of the cause of mental retardation, important advances in the care and treatment of the mentally retarded have been made in the last fifteen years(Turkington, 1987; Garber, 1988. Landesman & Ramey, 1989). Much of this change was instigated by the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 (Public Law 94– 142). In this federal law, congress ruled that the mentally retarded are entitled to a full education and that they must be educated and trained in the least-restrictive environment. The law increased the educational opportunities for the retarded, facilitating their integration into regular classrooms as much as possible — a process known as mainstreaming.

12. 9 The philosophy behind mainstreaming suggest that the interaction of retarded and nonretarded students in regular classrooms will improve the educational opportunities for the mentally retarded, increase their social acceptance, and facilitate their integration into society as a whole. The philosophy was once to segregate the retarded into special-education classes where they could learn at their own pace along with other handicapped students. Mainstreaming attempts to prevent the isolation inherent in special education classes and to reduce the social stigma of retardation by allowing the handicapped to interact with their age peers as much as possible (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 1987). 10 Of course, there are still special-education classes; some retarded individuals function at too low a level to benefit from placement in regular classrooms. Moreover, retarded children mainstreamed into regular classes typically attend special classes for at least part of the day. Still, mainstreaming holds the promise of increasing the integration of the mentally retarded into society and allowing them to make their own contribution to the world at large.

13. What is the primary purpose of this essay? As a college textbook, its primary purpose is to explain concept of mental retardation as clearly and concisely as possible. 2. What do you think about the style of this essay? Whether it is going to be delightful or entertaining to the readers may not be a major concern at all. Accordingly, the style of this essay is "clear" and "concise," but not that lively.

14. 3. How is the essay organized? The main method used for organization is classification: dividing the subject into subcategories: mildly retarded, moderate retardation, severe retardation, profound retardation. Each of these subcategories is explained clearly. Overall, the essay can be divided into the following parts: Part I (para. 1-3): Introducing the subject and defining the term Part II (para. 4-5): Explaining the subcategories of mental retardation Part III (para. 6-7): Explaining the possible causes of mental retardation Part IV (para. 8-10): Explaining the education of the mentally retarded through "mainstreaming" and "special education"

15. 4. How do you like the beginning? What if the essay began with paragraph 3? The author tries not to bore student-readers with cut and dried academic writing. The essay begins with a case ("Bill never liked school.... ") which serves to catch readers' attention, give something concrete to humanize the concept of "mental retardation." If the essay began with paragraph 3, the effect would be very different.

16. Essay Development —Classification Classify the following items: Drama Action Basketball (subgroup) Romance Baseball (subgroup) Comedy Sports(subject) Football (subgroup) Movies Western Ice Hockey (subgroup) Horror Ice Skating (subgroup) Foreign Others (subgroup) Others What is “Classification”? A strategy of explaining or examining a subject by organizing its components or various parts into categories.

17. Essay Development —Classification Choosing the Principles to Classify Depending on your need and the purpose of your writing, you can classify a subject in a number of ways by suing different principles. Brainstorm to find out the categories to discuss the subject of “Friend” age:gender:length of friendship:closeness of friendship:personality type:marital status:social status: young, middle-aged, old male, female new, old, lifelong fair-weather, casual, close/intimate/sworn quiet, outgoing, outspoken, introvert/ extrovert unmarried, married, divorced average Joe or Jane, mid-level management, high-ranking officials

18. Essay Development —Classification Choosing the Principles to Classify Depending on your need and the purpose of your writing, you can classify a subject in a number of ways by suing different principles. Which of these categories should be used in organizing our discussion depends on the rhetorical situation (subject, audience, purpose) of our writing. We should choose the categories that are most appropriate for the particular rhetorical situation.

19. Essay Development —Classification Testing the Effectiveness The following basic rules can help you test the effectiveness of your classification: It should be appropriate to your purpose of writing It should be consistent, so that resulting subgroups are based on the same principle It should be exclusive, so that resulting subgroups do not overlap It should be complete, so that no important subgroups are omitted

20. Essay Development —Classification Testing the Effectiveness The following basic rules can help you test the effectiveness of your classification: It should be appropriate to your purpose of writing College Orchestra’s musicians age gender major birthplace year at school music instrument The writing purpose is to explain the basic structure and components of an orchestra

21. Essay Development —Classification Testing the Effectiveness The following basic rules can help you test the effectiveness of your classification: It should be appropriate to your purpose of writing College Orchestra’s musicians age gender major birthplace year at school music instrument strings woodwinds brass percussion

22. Strings: violin, cello(大提琴), double-bass(低音提琴), viola(中提琴), harp(竖琴), electric guitar, acoustic guitar(原声吉它) Brass & Woodwind: clarinet (单簧管), trombone (长号), bugle (军号), trumpet (小号), bassoon (低音管), saxophone, tuba (土巴号), oboe (双簧管), piccolo( 短笛), recorder(竖笛), flute(长笛), French horn(法国号) Percussion: upright piano, grand piano, kettledrum(定音鼓), side-drum(小鼓), cymbals (钹), triangle, bass drum (低音鼓), xylophone (木琴)

23. Essay Development —Classification Testing the Effectiveness Orchestra’s musicians Strings Woodwinds Chemistry Freshman Percussion Violin Shanghai In this example, the classification is not consistent because the resulting subgroups are based on several principles being applied at the same time: music instrument, year at school, major, and birthplace. As a result, the classification is not exclusive because the resulting subgroups overlap rather than parallel: a musician on the orchestra can be from Shanghai, majoring in chemistry, a freshman, and a violinist all at the same time. In addition, violin is subordinate rather than parallel to the category of “strings”.

24. Essay Development —Classification Testing the Effectiveness It should be complete, so that no important subgroups are omitted Orchestra’s musicians age gender major birthplace year at school music instrument strings brass woodwinds other instruments percussion

25. Essay Development —Classification Explaining Each Subgroup Once classification is tested as effective, the next step is to explain each of the resulting subgroups. In discussion each of the subgroups, you can use other strategies for development, such as defining the terms, illustrating with examples, comparing and contrasting, and analyzing cause and effect. “Falling Below the Norm: Mental Retardation” mild retardationmoderate retardationsevere retardationprofound retardation

26. Essay Development —Classification The following passage is an example of using classification as an organizing strategy. Think about how the author classifies immigrants in the US : It has often been said that we are a nation of immigrants. In a sense that is true; but the blanket term "immigrants" covers over many important distinctions among the various peoples who came to America. The famine Irish and the east European Jewish victims of pogroms were essentially refugees who fled in whole family units, burning their bridges behind them, and arrived in the United States committed to becoming Americans. Others have come as sojourners, mostly men, and with the intention of returning to their native lands, so that Americanization in language, culture, or citizenship had a low priority for them. The earliest emigrations from Italy, China, Japan, and Mexico were largely of this character, as is much of today's

27. migration back and forth between Puerto Rico and the mainland of the United States. There were also immigrants who were neither refugees nor sojourners, but simply people who chose to come to the United States to settle at a place and time of their choice. Such immigrants-the Germans or Scandinavians, for example—were far less likely to concentrate in the port cities where they landed and more likely to choose a long-run settlement site suited to their conditions. Finally, there were those who did not choose to come at all but who were brought as captives—African slaves—and whose geographic distribution and occupational roles were suited to the convenience of others. Author classifies immigrants in the US into : refugees, sojourners, settlers, and captives and discusses each briefly

28. Key Features of Research Papers • It is Based on Extensive Research of Proven Facts and Authoritative Testimony. ???Suppose you are majoring in sociology and you are working on a research paper whose topic is : How the elderly are being taken care of in the retirement home (Jin Lao Yuan), specifically, how their physical and emotional needs are being met. How will you obtain “proven facts”? • First-hand experiments or field research: • Visit a few retirement homes; • Interview a number of their residents, residents’ families, employees working there, and managers running the homes. • Observe their living quarters, cafeteria, recreation rooms and their activities.

29. Key Features of Research Papers 2. The Author’s Voice Tends to be Objective and Neutral Different from the descriptive and narrative essays, whose subject is personal in nature and purpose is to share significant personal experiences with readers, in the research paper, the authorial voice tends to be neutral, objective, and unemotional. This is determined by the primary purpose of the research paper that is to appeal to the intellect of the readers, or to gain readers’ intellectual agreement rather than to move or win them emotionally. Emotional or biased use of language will cause the paper to lose its credibility, hinder accurate presentation of information, and affect judgment of the content presented.

30. Key Features of Research Papers 3. The Style Tends to be Formal Since a research paper is written for professionals in the same field and in many cases intended for publication in professional or academic periodicals, and the purpose is to present accurate information, the style has to be formal. The formality is achieved through its diction, sentence structure, and format. • Appropriate Diction • Moderately Complex Sentences • Neat Appearance and Format

31. Key Features of Research Papers 3. The Style Tends to be Formal • Appropriate Diction The diction should be both precise and appropriate. Informal expressions (colloquialisms and slang expressions) : “hard nut to crack,” “at each other’s throats,” “give someone a buzz,” “knock it off” and “nothing doing” add some color but will be frowned upon as being unprofessional and out of place in academic writings Describing the results of a new teaching method (including “learning-disabled” kids in the “regular” classroom) as “OK”(or “so so,” “all right,”) is not as proper as describing them as “satisfactory.”

32. Key Features of Research Papers 3. The Style Tends to be Formal • Appropriate Diction It should not become pompous; simple expressions, as long as they are appropriate, can be as accurate and even more forceful and readable. Utilization of regular correspondence by the young scholars to the senior population who inhabit the nursing home which is situated at 1243 Market Street has been proposed by the school. The school has proposed that its students write regularly to the residents of the nursing home at 1243 Market Street.

33. Key Features of Research Papers 3. The Style Tends to be Formal • Moderately Complex Sentences Complex ideas demand complex sentences to express them clearly and accurately. It takes longer and more complex sentences to show relationships (temporal, spatial, contrastive, and causal). However, there is always the danger to overdoing it. The key word for the complexity of sentence structures is moderate.Strings of short and simple sentences will give readers an unfavorable impression of lack of intellectual maturity. On the other hand, wordy, tangled and excessively leaden sentences, such as a single-sentence-paragraph verbal monster are unwelcome because they hinder understanding, obscure meaning and do not serve the purpose of a research report.

34. Key Features of Research Papers 3. The Style Tends to be Formal • Neat Appearance and Format A research paper should have an aesthetically pleasing appearance: typewritten or printed on good-quality white paper, free from errors, and clear, easy-to-read diagrams, figures, and tables. It should be correct even down to such details as mechanics, punctuation, and margins (top, bottom, left, and right). Research papers require careful documentation of their facts and sources. Different academic disciplines follow different conventions in documentation. the MLA (Modern Language Association) style the APA (the American Psychological Association) style.

35. Author’s name in the text MLA: Dr. Chi predicted optimistically that July 1, 1997 would not be “the doomsday of Hong Kong” and that “the golden goose” would not be killed (23). APA: Dr. Chi (1997) predicted optimistically that July 1, 1997 would not be “the doomsday of Hong Kong” and that “the golden goose” would not be killed (p. 23). Author’s name not in the text MLA: One columnist predicted optimistically that July 1, 1997 would not be “the doomsday of Hong Kong” and that “the golden goose” would not be killed (Chi 23). APA: One columnist predicted optimistically that July 1, 1997 would not be “the doomsday of Hong Kong” and that “the golden goose” would not be killed (Chi, 1997, p. 23).

36. More than One Author MLA: Thomas, Liu, and Wang have identified several genes which may be cancer causing (43). APA: Thomas, Liu, and Wang (1997) have identified several genes which may be cancer causing (p. 43). MLA: Several genes which may be cancer causing have been identified (Thomas, Liu, and Wang 43). APA: Several genes which may be cancer causing have been identified (Thomas et al., 1997, p. 43). Quotation from Secondary Source MLA: Lu Xun likend the old China to an impenetrable prison: “an iron house having not a single window, and virtually indestructible, with all its inmates sound asleep and about to die of suffocation” (qtd. in Schwarcz 13). APA: Lu Xun likend the old China to an impenetrable prison: “an iron house having not a single window, and virtually indestructible, with all its inmates sound asleep and about to die of suffocation” (cited. in Schwarcz, 1986, p. 13).

37. Works Cited (MLA) or References (APA) List MLA: author’s name, title, publication information, year, and page; APA: author’s name, year, title, publication, and page BOOKS Book with a Single Author MLA: Cohen, Warren I. America’s Response to China: an Interpretative History of Sino-American Relations. 3rd ed. New York: Columbia U P, 1990. APA: Cohen, Warren I. (1990) America’s response to China: an interpretative history of Sino-American relations. New York: Columbia U P. Book with More than Three Authors MLA: Lawrence, James, et al. The AIDS Epidemic. New York: New Books, 1996. APA: Lawrence, James, et al. (1996). The AIDS epidemic. New York: New Books.

38. An Edited book or collection MLA: Arnold, Matthew. Culture and Anarchy. Ed. J. Dover Wilson. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1966. MLA: Goldstein, Jonathan, et al., eds. America Views China: American Images of China Then and Now. Bethlehem, PA: Lehigh U P, 1991. APA: Goldstein, Jonathan, et al., (Eds.) (1991) America views China: American images of China then and now. Bethlehem, PA: Lehigh U P. Translation MLA: Hardy, Thomas. A Pair of Blue Eyes. Trans. Weiming Yan and Shouhua Qi. Nanjing, China: Yiling Press, 1994. APA: Hardy, Thoms. (1994). A pair of blue eyes. Trans. Weiming Yan and Shouhua Qi. Nanjing, China: Yiling Press. (Original work published 1872-1873)

39. PERIODICALS Article from a Newspaper MLA: Chi, S. “Hong Kong at Sunrise.” The Patriot-News 29 June 1997: B11. APA: Chi, S. Hong Kong at sunrise. (1997, June 29) The Patriot-News, p. B11. Article from a Magazine MLA: McCarthy, Terry. “Down the Yangtze: Time and the River.” Time June 29, 1998: 31-35. APA: McCarthy, Terry. (1998, June 29). Down the Yangtze: time and the river. Time, pp. 31-35. Article in a Journal with Continuous Pagination MLA: Brady, Phillp. “Teaching Tu Fu on the Night Shift.” College English 5 (1995) : 562-569. APA: Brady, Phillp. (1995). Teaching Tu Fu on the night shift. College English, 5, 562-569.

40. INTERNET SOURCES Name of author (if available) Title of Source Publication date (if available) Internet access (in angle brackets) Date of access (in parenthesis) MLA: Ross, Robert S. “The 1998 Sino-American Summit.” Asia Society: Publications. June 1998. <http: // www. asiasociety. org/publications/sino_american_summit.html> (24 June 1998). APA: Ross, Robert S. (1998, June). “The 1998 Sino-American summit.” Asia Society: Publications. <http: // www. asiasociety. org/publications/sino_american_summit.html> (24 June 1998).

41. INTERNET SOURCES Name of author (if available) Title of Source Publication date (if available) Internet access (in angle brackets) Date of access (in parenthesis) If the author’s name is not known: MLA: “Newsmaker Interview with Li Zhaoxing.” Online NewsHour. 15 June 1998. <http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/asia/jan-june98/li_6-15.html> (24 June 1998). APA: “Newsmaker interview with Li Zhaoxing.” (1998, 15 June). Online NewsHour. <http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/asia/jan-june98/li_6-15.html> (24 June 1998).

42. Assignments • Write a research paper (approximately 1000 words) about AIDS for example. • In the paper, you need to answer the following questions: • What is AIDS? • What are the ways to spread AIDS? • How can we detect and treat it? • The number of AIDS cases in China has increased considerably over the recent years. Why? What's the best way to fight AIDS? • What do you think of AIDS education in China? How is it taught? Is it effective? Should it be taught as early as the fourth or fifth grade of elementary school (as is done in the United States)? Why (not)?