Culture and Psychology

1. Culture and Psychology Conceptualizing Culture in Psychology

2. Why Study Culture in Psychology? • To check the generality of psychological research • To conduct natural experiments and quasi-experiments • To extend understanding of “culture” • To understand the process of cultural change • To reduce ethnocentrism and promote intercultural understanding.

3. What is Culture? • Material/Objective Culture • Buildings, tools, clothing, methods of transportation, etc. • Subjective Culture • Characteristic ways of viewing the environment (e.g., ideas, theories, and political, religious, scientific, aesthetic, economic, moral and social standards for judging events in the environment. • Subjective culture can be institutionalized in government, education, religion, etc. systems.

4. Defining Culture • Range of activities, phenomena in human life • Transmission from generation to generation; accumulated knowledge • Socialization/enculturation • Implicit and explicit assumptions about life • Shared rules to govern activity of a group • Patterns of organization • Genesis of culture (out of habitat, social interaction, etc.) • A psychological construct

5. Approaches to the Psychological Study of Culture Absolutism Universalism Relativism

6. Approaches to the Psychological Study of Culture • Cross-Cultural Psychology • Is concerned with the systematic study of behaviour and experience as it occurs in different cultures, is influenced by culture or results in changes in existing cultures (Triandis, 1980, p. 1)

7. Approaches to the Psychological Study of Culture • Cultural Psychology • Is the study of all the things members of different communities think (know, want, feel, value) and do by virtue of being the kinds of beings who are the beneficiaries, guardians and active perpetuators of a particular culture (Shweder et al., 1998, p. 867) • Study of meaning, intentions

8. Approaches to the Psychological Study of Culture • Indigenous Psychologies • A psychology of a cultural group based on the day-to-day behaviour of its members, for which local points of view provide the paradigms that guide the collection and interpretation of psychological information. (Berry et al., 2002, pp. 459-460)

9. Approaches to the Psychological Study of Culture • Ethnic Minority Psychology • “… is concerned with the use of culturally appropriate methods to understand the behavior and experiences of specific ethnic groups … historically marginalized groups in North America.” (Goldstein, 2000, p. vii)

10. Approaches to the Study of Culture • Culture as Patterns/Syndromes • Culture as Intergroup Relations • Culture as “Border Crossing” • Culture as a Process

11. Culture as Patterns (Triandis, 1980) • Cultural Syndromes • A pattern of beliefs, attitudes, self-definitions, norms and values that are organized around some theme that can be identified in a society.

12. Elements of Subjective Culture • Knowledge-Related Constructs • Norm-Related Constructs • Self and Social Relationships • Values

13. Knowledge-Related Constructs • Schema • An organized body of information including categories and their associations, stored in memory. Schemata provide structure that help with perceiving, organizing and remembering information, allowing for efficient processing of social information. • Beliefs

14. Norm-Related Constructs • Norms • Implicit or explicit generalized expectations regarding what is appropriate behaviour for members of a group • Kinds of Norms • Descriptive • Prescriptive vs. proscriptive (mores vs. taboos) • Institutionalized norms • Roles

15. Values • Values are principles that guide our lives. They are designed to lead us to our ideal world (Schwartz, 1992) • Transcend specific situations • Guide selection or evaluation of behaviour and events • Ordered by relative importance

16. Value Dimensions (Hofstede, 1980) • Power Distance • the tendency to see a large social distance between those in the upper part of a social structure and those in the lower part of the social structure. • Control of others’ behaviours • Uncertainty Avoidance • Avoidance of situations where the outcome is uncertain • Security, low risk-taking, state religion • Masculinity-Femininity • Emphasize differences between men and women • Focus on “achievement” and “success” vs. “interpersonal harmony” or “caring for others and quality of life” • Individualism-Collectivism • Tendency to give priority to personal goals even when they conflict with the goals of important groups.

17. CBC Integration Human-heartedness Confucian work dynamism Moral discipline -- Hofstede Collectivism Masculinity -- Power distance (high) Uncertainty avoidance Chinese Culture Connection (1987)

18. Value Dimensions (Schwartz, 1992) Self- Direction Universalism Stimulation Benevolence Hedonism Tradition Achievement Conformity Power Security

19. Self and Social Relationships • Fiske (1990, 1992) • Communal Sharing • Share resources according to need • Authority Ranking • Distribute resources according to rank • Equality Matching • Share resources equally • Market Pricing • Distribute resources equitably (the more you give, the more you get)

20. Independent and Interdependent Self-Construals (Markus & Kitayama, 1991) Coworker Mother Coworker Mother SELF SELF Friend Neighbour Friend Neighbour Independent Interdependent

21. Independent Separate from social context Bounded, unitary, stable Internal, private (feelings, thoughts) Life tasks: Be unique, express self, self-actualization Direct communication Self-esteem depends on ability to express self, validate internal attributes Interdependent Connected with social context Flexible, variable External, public (roles, statuses, relationships) Life tasks: belong, fit-in, engage in appropriate action, promote others’ goals Indirect communication Self esteem depends on ability to adjust, maintain harmony, restrain self Independent and Interdependent Self-Construals (Markus & Kitayama, 1991)

22. Cousins (1989) Proportion of attributes in self-description

23. Self-Construals and Emotion(Kitayama, Markus, Kurokawa, & Negishi, 1993) Correlation with general positive feelings

24. Self-Construals and Motivation (Iyengar & Lepper, 1999) Seconds spent on anagrams during free play

25. Culture as Intergroup Relations • Ingroup: The social group to which an individual perceives herself or himself as belonging (“us”). • Outgroup: Any group other than the one to which individuals perceive themselves as belonging (“them”).

26. Culture as Intergroup Relations • 3 Factors Suggested to Explain the Psychological Importance of Ethnicity (Phinney, 1996) • Cultural values, attitudes, and behaviours that distinguish ethnic groups • Subjective sense of group membership (i.e., ethnic identity) • Experiences associated with minority status (e.g., powerlessness, prejudice)

27. Culture as Intergroup Relations • Social Identity Theory (Tajfel, 1978) • Social categorization • Social identity • Social comparison • Psychological group distinctiveness

28. Culture as Intergroup Relations, cont. • Social Identity Theory, cont. • Social categorization • The cognitive tendency to divide the social world into categories (i.e., social groups). This categorical differentiation has the effect of sharpening the distinctions between the categories and blurs the differences within them.

29. Culture as Intergroup Relations, cont. • Social Identity Theory • Social identity • That part of the individual’s self-concept which derives from knowledge of his or her membership in a social group, together with the value and emotional significance associated to that membership.

30. Culture as Intergroup Relations, cont. • Social Identity Theory, cont. • Social comparison • The process through which characteristics of the ingroup are compared to those of the outgroup.

31. Culture as Intergroup Relations, cont. • Social Identity Theory, cont. • Psychological Group Distinctiveness • The state desired by individuals in which the ingroup has an identity that is perceived by the group members as being both distinct and positive vis-à-vis relevant comparison groups.

32. Reactions of Minority Groups • Social mobility • Exit from the disadvantaged group and join a more positively evaluated group. • Social creativity • Look for new dimensions of comparison, redefine the current dimension of comparison, or compare with a different outgroup. • Social competition • Directly challenge the position of the relatively positively evaluated group.