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Introducing ASML

Introducing ASML. Methods, Values, Constraints, Constants, Variables, Sets, Sequences Lecture 11, 12 Software Engineering COMP201. I. Methods. Methods are named operations that may be invoked in various contexts

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Introducing ASML

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  1. Introducing ASML Methods, Values, Constraints, Constants, Variables, Sets, Sequences Lecture 11, 12 Software Engineering COMP201

  2. I. Methods • Methods are named operations that may be invoked in various contexts • The definition of a method may include parameters that will be associated with particular values each time the method is invoked • Methods may also specify a return value that is available after the operation has been performed

  3. The general form for a method definition The type of the return value, if there is one name (parameter 1 as Type, … parameter n as Type)as Type the name of method the values sent to the method, if there any

  4. Method IsWord() • An expression in the form IsWord() is an application of the name IsWord to argument i, which is a long integer. • IsWord evaluates an argument i and returns the value true if i 0 and i0xFFFF (hexadecimal number). • If i doesn’t fit these criteria, IsWord returns the value false. IsWord ( i as Integer ) as Boolean return (0<= i and i <= 0xFFFF) Main() step if IsWord ( 123 ) then WriteLine (“123 is a word of memory.”)

  5. Functions and update procedures • Functions have no effect on state variables • Functions must return a value IsWord ( i as Integer ) as Boolean return (0<= i and i <= 0xFFFF) • Update procedures configure the values of state variables for the next sequential step of the machine • Update procedures may optionally return a value

  6. Update procedure power() var x as Integer = 3 var y as Integer = 0 var index as Integer = 3 power (x as Integer, n as Integer) as Integer var result as Integer = 1 var i as Integer = 1 step while i<=n result:=result*x i:=i+1 step return result Main() step y := power(5,3) step WriteLine (“5 cubed =” +y) WriteLine(“3 cubed =” + power(3,index)) x:= power(x, power(2,2)) step WriteLine (“x = ” +x) Output: 5 cubed = 125 3 cubed = 27 x = 81

  7. Main() mySet = {1, 2, 3} step WriteLine(“mySet has” + asString(Size(mySet))+ “ elements. ”) Local names for values Statement in the form identifier = expression introduce identifier as a local name for the value given on the right hand side of the equals sign (“ = ”) by expression. Size (S) Cardinality of the set S Local names may be introduced within any block of statement. Local names could appear after the “then” keyword of an if … then … else statement

  8. Local names in sequences of steps • A local name can be referenced anywhere in its statement block. • In a sequence of steps, local namesintroduced within a step block are available within any following step block. Main() step mySet1 = {1, 2, 3} WriteLine (“mySet has” + asString(size(mySet1))+ “ elements. ”) step mySet2 = mySet1 union {4 , 5, 6} WriteLine(“mySet has” + asString(size(mySet2))+ “ elements. ”)

  9. Method overloading Method overloading allows you: • to use the same name in different methods • in each instance to have the compiler choose the correct instance Must be a clear way for the compiler to decide which method should be called for any particular instance The KEY for this is the parameter list

  10. Method overloading example S = { 1, 8, 2, 12, 13, 6} Max(i as Integer, j as Integer)as Integer returnif i > j then i else j Max(s as Set of Integer)as Integer returnany m | m in S where not (exists n in S where n>m ) Main() stepwriteln(“The largest number in the set is ” + ( Max(S) ) ) stepwriteln(“The largest of the two integers is ” + ( Max(2,3) ) ) A series of methods with the same name but differentiated by their parameter lists are overloaded methods

  11. II.ValuesWhat are values? The term value has the same meaning as in mathematical sets Value A value is an immutable element that supports two operations: equality testing and set membership. If x and y are values, then we can ask whether x is equal to y If the S is a set, then we can ask whether x is an element of S x in S x = y

  12. ordered pair value ( x , y ) Structured values • Some values are composed of other values • Some structured values are built into AsmL; others may be defined by you structure Location base as Integer offset as Integer Location (1,4) is a value of the user-defined structure type Location

  13. Data Type Meaning Boolean A type that can be assigned true and false Byte 8-bit unsigned integer type Short 16-bit signed integer type Integer 32-bit signed integer type Long 64-bit signed integer type Float Single-precision 32-bit floating-point format type as specified in IEEE 754 Double Double-precision 64-bit floating-point format type as specified in IEEE 754 Built in value types

  14. Built in value types Data Type Meaning Char Unicode character type String Unicode string type Seq of A A sequence of elements of type A Set of A A set containing elements of type A Map of A to B A table whose entries map of elements of type A to type B

  15. Built in value types Data Type Meaning (A1,A2,…) A tuple consisting of elements of type A1, A2, … Tuple values are written in the same form For example, (1,2) is of a value of the built-in type (Integer,Integer) A? Types in the form t? includes all of the values of type t plus the special value undef. For example, a variable declared as Boolean? could contain either of the Boolean value true or false or the value undef.

  16. III. Constraints Assertions • Assertionsrequire and ensure statements document constraints placed upon the model • Violating a constraint at runtime is called an assertion failure AllTickets = {1..1024} IsTicketID (i as Integer) as Boolean require i > 0 return ( i in AllTickets) ChooseAnyTicket() as Integer ensure IsTicketID(result) return any t | t in AllTickets • The keyword result denotes the value of the return statement

  17. Type constraints • Types of constants, variables and method parameters may be specified using the syntax : nameastype • Types may be explicitly checked using the “ is” operator : valueistype an expression will be either true or false, depending on whether the value given is an element of the type • Types are not themselves values. For example, you can’t pass a type as an argument

  18. IV. Constants • Constants are fixed, named values • Constants can either be global or local • Global constants are declared in the beginning of the program • Local constants are declared within a statement block • The general form of declaring and initialising a constant is: Name [as Type] = value MaxInteger = 100 Main() MinInteger = 0

  19. V. Variables • Variables are names given to memory locations. • Updating variables is the only way to change a state of a machine. • Variables can be complex types such as structures or maps as well as simple types. • Here is the general form for declaring and initialising variables: varname[asType] = value

  20. Types of variables • There are three types of variables in AsmL • Global variables • Local variables • Instance-based variables Instance-based variables are variables that exist for each instance of a class var x as Integer = 10 // shows explicit typing var x = 10 // shows implicit typing var greeting as String = “Hello” // shows a // string variable var y = [1..6] // shows a sequence of // integers from 1 to 6 var menu = {“ham”, “cheese”, “bit”} // shows a // set

  21. III. Sets • A set is an unordered collection of distinct values that are of the same type (for example, all integers or all characters) • These values are called the elements or members of the set • To show all the elements of a set, frame the elements between two curly braces and separate one element from the other by commas A ={‘a’,’e’,’i’, ‘o’,’u’}//set of characters B ={‘2’,’3’,’0’, ‘22’,’4’}//set of integers C={}//empty set

  22. Sets with enumerated elements Sets given by value range To specify a set you can either • list all the elements in the set or • you can state all the properties that characterize the elements of the set X={1,2,3,4} Main() step WriteLine(X) These methods are practical for small sets X={1..4} Main() step WriteLine(X)

  23. Sets described algorithmically In many cases, listing all the elements of a set isn’t practical Problem: Suppose we have a set that includes the integers from 1 to 20 and we want to find those numbers that, when doubled, still belong to the set. Solution: A = {1..20} C = {i | i in A where 2*i in A} Main() step WriteLine(C)

  24. Binding multiple names(example) This example finds pairs of numbers where • the first number is a member of A and less than 4, • while the second number is also in A and is less than the first number i lt 4 i lt j A = {1..5} C = {(i,j) | i in A where i < 4 , j in A where j < i} Main() step WriteLine(C) The result is: C={(2,1) (3,1) (3,2)}

  25. Set operations • Union • Intersect • Size A = {1,2,3,4,5} B = {4,5,6} Main() step WriteLine(B union A) step WriteLine(B intersect A) step WriteLine(size(A)) The result is: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} {4, 5} 5 For more complete documentation, see the AsmL documentation: http://research.microsoft.com/fse/asml/doc/StartHere.html

  26. I. Sequences • A Sequence is a collection of elements of the same type, just as a set is. • Sequences differ from sets in two ways: • A sequence is ordered while a set is not. • A sequence can contain duplicate elements while a set does not. • Elements of sequences are contained within square brackets: [ ] [1,2,3,4], [4,3,2,1], [a,e,i,o,u], [a,a,e,i,o,u] X={1,2,3,4} Y={1,1,2,3,4} Z=[1,1,2,3,4] Main() step WriteLine(“X=” +X) step WriteLine (“Y=” +Y) step WriteLine (“Y=” +Y) The result is: X = {1,2,3,4} Y = {1,2,3,4} Z = [1,1,2,3,4]

  27. Ordering of sequences eq = ne  lt < gt > in  notin  subset  superset  subseteq  superseteq  A = {1,2,3,4} B = {4,3,2,1} C = [4,3,2,1] D = [1,2,3,4] Main() step if A eq B then WriteLine (“A = B”) else WriteLine (“A <> B”) step if C eq D then WriteLine (“C = D”) else WriteLine (“C <> D”) A = B The result is: A = B C <> D

  28. Accessing sequence entries by index • Sequences are zero-based, which means that the first element in the sequence is indexed by zero (“0”) • To select a specific element from the sequence, use the sequence name followed by element number, enclosed in parentheses m = [1..5] Main() step WriteLine (m(1)) The code displays the number 2

  29. II. Parallel evaluation • It is possible to make updates in parallel using the forall statement that evaluates all the members of a set or sequence in a single step • Parallel evaluation is helpful because, it greatly reduces the number of steps required to specify an algorithm forallbinders statement-list

  30. S1 Alice.age =20 Bob.age =16 Ted.age =40 S2 Alice.age =21 Bob.age =17 Ted.age =41 S3 Alice.age =22 Bob.age =18 Ted.age =42 Parallel Evaluation Example class Person var age as Integer Alice = new Person(20) Bob = new Person(16) Ted = new Person(40) People= {Alice, Bob, Ted} GrowOlder() forall p in People p.age := p.age + 1 var year = 2002 Main() stepwhile year < 2010 WriteLine (“Alice’s”+Alice.age + “ in ” + year) WriteLine (“Bob’s”+Alice.age + “ in ” + year) WriteLine (“Ted’s”+Alice.age + “ in ” + year) GrowOlder() year := year + 1

  31. Sequential iteration • AsmL provides for sequential iteration through the elements in a collection using the step foreachwhile and until statement step foreachboundedvars step whileexpression step until ( fixpoint | expression ) • If you need to use step foreach, and you are using it with sets remember that sets have no inherent order • If the order is important, use sequences rather than sets

  32. S1 Alice.age =20 Bob.age =16 Ted.age =40 S2 Alice.age =20 Bob.age =17 Ted.age =40 S3 Alice.age =21 Bob.age =17 Ted.age =40 Sequential iteration over a collection class Person var age as Integer Alice = new Person(20) Bob = new Person(16) Ted = new Person(40) People= {Alice, Bob, Ted} GrowOlder() stepforeach p in People p.age := p.age + 1 var year = 2002 Main() stepwhile year < 2010 WriteLine(“Alice’s”+Alice.age + “ in ” + year) WriteLine (“Bob’s”+Alice.age + “ in ” + year) WriteLine (“Ted’s”+Alice.age + “ in ” + year) GrowOlder() year := year + 1

  33. III. Maps • Maps are tables that associate keys to values • Like arrays, maps have a set of unique keys and a set of values associated with those keys Example. Map declaration var phoneNumber as Map of String to Integer Example. Enumerating map entries phoneNumber = {“Bob” –>100, “Carol” |–>101} The “ –> ” symbol associated keys with values. It is read as “map to”

  34. Maps with single argument Example. Looking up values in a map var phoneNumber as Map of String to Integer = {“Bob” –>100, “Carol” –>101} Main() step WriteLine (“Carol’s extension is” + phoneNumber(“Carol”)) Example. Map-based binding var phoneNumber as Map of String to Integer = {“Bob” –>100, “Carol” –> 101, “Ted” –>102, “Alice” –>103} Main() step y = {j | i –> j in phoneNumber where j < 103} WriteLine(“The set of extensions less than 103 is”+y)

  35. Map construction • Map display is an enumeration of individual element-to-element associations in the form {d1–> r1, d2–> r2, …} • Map comprehension denotes a map in terms of iterated expressions. Its from is: {expr1–> expr2 | binder1, binder2, …} Example. Constructing maps X = {2..5} Y = {i–> i + 1 | i in X where i <4 } // same as z Z = {2–> 3, 3–> 4} WriteLine (z(2)) // prints 3

  36. Maps with multiple arguments • Maps whose keys are tuples can be thought of as multidimensional arrays. • Each argument is one of the indexers into the table. Example. Tuples as map keys and Nested maps var phoneNumber1 as Map of (String,String) to Integer = {(“Bob”, “Home”) –> 5550000, (“Bob”, “Work”) –> 100 )} var phoneNumber2 as Map of String to Map of String to Integer = {“Bob” –>{ “Home” –> 5550000}} Main() step WriteLine (phoneNumber1) step WriteLine (phoneNumber2) When you declare the map, separate each of the argument types with a comma “,” and enclose them all in parentheses “(” and “)”.

  37. Map Operations • dom – to find the domain of a map • ran - to find the range of a map var phoneNumber as Map of String to Integer = {“Bob” –>100, “Carol” –>101} Main() step WriteLine (“The keys are” + dom(phoneNumber)) step WriteLine(“The values are” + ran(phoneNumber)) The result is: The keys are {Bob,Carol} The values are {100,101}

  38. Map merge • The merge operation combines two maps: A = {“Bob” –>100, “Carol” –>101, “Ted” –>100, “Carol” –>101} B = {“Jeff” –>104, “George” –>105, “Ann” –>106, “Beth” –>107} Main() step WriteLine (B merge A) The result is: {“Bob” |–>100, “Carol” |–>101, “Ted” |–>100, “Carol” |–>101, “Jeff” |–>104, “George” |–>105, “Ann” |–>106, “Beth” |–>107}

  39. Partial updates of maps • Along with sets, partial updates are also useful with maps. var Extension as Map of String to Integer = {–>} Main() step Extension(“Bob”) := 100 Extension(“Carol”) := 101 step WriteLine(“Bob’s extension is”+ Extension(“Bob”)) WriteLine (“Carol’s extension is”+ Extension(“Bob”)) • A name (a string) is associated with an extension (an integer). • Initially, the map is empty. We can then add entries to it, one person at a time

  40. IV. Non-Determinism • Non-deterministic systems exhibits two characteristic: • There is a finite set of possibilities • Within that set the result may be any value, but we don’t know which one • In addition to accuracy, non-determinism provides flexibility • A specification should not limit the possible implementations • Non-determinism can be used to show where multiple options are possible • Using non-determinism to model aspects of your system is an important part of keeping your model focused • It helps to avoid being distracted by detail that does not matter for chosen view

  41. Non-deterministic choice Successful modellers are conscientious about excluding what does not matter (for the chosen level of abstraction) and including what does. Example. ND choice, expression level A = {1..10} Main() step x = any y | y in A WriteLine(“x is ” + x) //prints any element from A Example. ND choice, statement level S = {1, 6, 3} Main() step choose i in S where i > 4 WriteLine (i + “ was chosen”) // prints any // elements from A that is greater than 4 Possible ERROR !

  42. Non-deterministic choice + ifnone • If there are no elements that fit the qualifications, the system generates a runtime error • You can avoid this with ifnone Example. Default choice S = {1,6,3} Main() step choose i in S where i > 4 WriteLine (i + “ was chosen”) // prints any // elements from A that is greater than 4 ifnone WriteLine (“There were none to choose.”)

  43. External non-determinism • Another kind of non-determinism occurs when you make a method call outside of AsmL (for example, into an external library) • You should not assume that external functions appears in a method body will be the same as the order they are invoked at runtime, unless a “step” separates them Main() step WriteLine (“This could print second”) WriteLine (“This could print first”) step WriteLine (“This will print last”)

  44. Non-determinism of “new” • The “new” operator that is used to create instances of a class can be seen as an external or non-deterministic function • The reason for this is that “new” expressions like new Person(“Bill”, 40)) in the earlier examples) return a different value every time they are invoked

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