Chapter 2 American Revolution

1. Chapter 2 American Revolution

2. War of American Independence • American & British War Aims: • War Aims of Both Sides? (gain people’s ?__________) • Both: destroy or preserve ?______ andcreate or destroy what? • American & British Strategy & Tactics: • Initial British Strategy & Tactics? (?______________) • American Rebel Strategy & Tactics? (______ & ______) • Contrast two Strategies w/18th Cent. Mil. Conventions: • Militia of people vs. set piece engagement & combined arms • Start of the War – Militia War: • Both sides: “Minimum Force” & Brit “Show of Force” • American & British self-imposed restraint & its impact • Unskilled Militia vs. small well trained regular Army

3. Opening Engagements • Lexington & Concord (Map): • British CinC’s (Gage) Military Objective: Concord Magazine • Strategy/Tactics & Military Plan • Execution: march through Lexington & then on to Concord • Net Result & extent of success/failure: Brits suffer CAS • Significance of action & results: emboldens Rebels • Who also learn wrong lesson

4. Boston- 1775

5. Bunker Hill - Opening Engagement 16-17 June • Force Disposition: • Rebels: 3200 Mass/NH/CN • Brits: Howe w/1500=>2500) • Battle Plan: • Feign attack on Rebel redoubt • Attack NE flank along Mystic • Plan/s Strategic Purpose & Objective: • Rebels: force Brits to abandon Boston (but have few arty) • British Objective: Drive Rebels out of Charlestown Neck • Strategic aim: Demonstrate British “invincibility”

6. Bunker Hill: Execution & BDA • Execution: Rebels blunt Howe’s flanking attack • Force Howe to convert his feint to the Rebel center into costly frontal attack • Howe leads 3 attacks before taking Breed Hill • Americans retreat to Bunker Hill- out of ammo • Battle Results & significance: • Costly Tactical victory at cost of 1054 British CAS to 400 American CAS • Strategic failure: Americans were not “over awed” of British might • Key American Lesson Learned • Larger better trained/equipped force required • But Americans still not ready to create standing Army- yet… • Howe becomes cautious of future costly tactical “victories”

7. Washington Takes Command • Selection of George Washington as CinC: • Key choice for key reasons • Washington’s strategy: • Personally desires decisive engagement, but… • “first things first” (organize, equip & train) • Acquire needed men/weapons/powder & cannon first! • Siege of Boston • British are completely cut off except for sparse Naval re-supply • Howe (now CinC) maritime LOC vulnerable if Navy threatened • But Rebels need guns and firing position to pose an actual threat • Col Henry Knox proposes retrieving guns from Ft Ticonderoga • Rebels must occupy what position to force Brits out?

8. Siege of Boston • American Occupation of Dorchester Heights(Map) • Well executed deployment in front of but unseen by Brits at night • Men & cannon deploy & construct works throughout the night • By morning Howe & his troops & ships awake to threat of Rebel guns

9. Dorchester Heights- Results • Howe forced to abandon Boston – why? • __________& ______ at risk • British Army departs by ship for Halifax • Prepare for future major engagement (NYC) • Rebels’ morale soars • Forced Brits to W/D • Washington moves to protect New York • Rebels redeploy south • Raise defense strong works around New York

10. Contrasting Strategies • Revolutionary War Strategies: • American Unconventional purpose & strategic objective • Win hearts & minds of the people to the “cause of freedom” • Howe’s priorities contrast w/those of British government • Howe: promote negotiated settlement & restore Brit empire • General Howe’s Strategy for 1776: • Take territory, minimize. causalities, invincible image => • Convince Americans to accept British Government • General Howe’s Plan to accomplish this Strategy?

11. Howe’s Initial Plan • Howe’s Plan to accomplish above strategy: • Capture NYC & occupy Hudson River Valley • Capture Rhode Island • Send detachments to raid coast fm NY to Maine- then… • Push North along Hudson & join Canadian Army • Encircle & cut off New England • Attack Massachusetts's western frontiers • Lure Washington into decisive Battle=> to end war • Lord Howeconvinces his brother to modify plan: • General Howe’s new plan?

12. General Howe’s Modified Plan • Gradual (incremental) recovery of territory: • Aim: project British image of invincibility • Minimize causalities on both sides • Use only just enough force to prevail • Encourage negotiated political settlement on Crown’s terms • Problem with above: no authority to negotiate! • Meanwhile- Washington prepares to defend NY • Fortify NYC & Long Island (Brooklyn Heights) • Occupy Brooklyn Heights but hold back main reserve • (Concern that Brits would land main attack further North) • Simplified tactics and doctrine necessary (Militia!) • Military Strategy to serve unconventional purpose

13. British Advantages • British enjoy significant advantage: • Powerful Fleet for operational & logistic support • Experienced Commanders, Officers, & trained Vets • Proven leadership qualities during Seven Years War • Troops: trained, disciplined, professional, unit integrity • Well established unity of command • American forces lack all of above • Role of “Command of the Seas”WRT New York • Key to New York is Long Island • The Key to Long Island is holding Brooklyn Heights • Can New York be held without a strong Navy?

14. Battle of Long Island • Howe’s Battle Aim: • Drive Rebels out of NY • Force disposition: • 3K Americans spread 6 miles along Guana Heights • 9K on Brooklyn Heights in reserve • Howe had total force of 32K, of which 15K would attack Long Island • British (Clinton’s) Plan • 5K Demo on American right flank. • 5K Hessians hold Rebel Center • Main force (10K) flank unprotected Rebel left at Jamaica pass • 1st major engagement of the war • Americans soundly defeated • But Howe failed to exploit it • Surprise night retreat across Hudson saves Washington’s Army • Early morning fog helps too • Army survives to fight again

15. Impact of British Victory at Long Island • The Howes persist in their strategy • Recover territory & encourage peace negotiations • Thru series of turning movements- forces further retreat • Washington forced to abandon NYC (untenable) • Divides his forces and tries to halt further British advance up the Hudson • Howe’s strategic purpose met? • Is British “invincibility” image re-enforced? • No decisive victory achieved… • But series of limited engagements successful • Howe & Hessians capture Fort Washington (2000+ men lost) • Americans forced to abandon Fort Lee without a shot fired • Howe gradually evicts Americans from NY, NJ, & RI • Adm Lord Howe offers pardons to all taking loyalty oath • 5000 accept offer & take pledge in NY, NJ, & Newport • For the Americans, it’s a time that “tries men’s souls” • A long retreat across NJ& the Delaware into PA begins

16. The Long Retreat Militia enlistments up soon => desperate measures required- opportunity when?

17. Desperate Gamble:Washington’s raid on Trenton • Howe pursues Washington relentlessly across New Jersey • Then abruptly disperses his forces into winter quarters • Including along Delaware River • Hessian Garrisonof 1400-1500 in winter quarters at Trenton • Strategic purpose of Washington’s planned attack? • Washington needs a win- why? • Restore ?_______& __________ • Tactics: Rapid concentration of force and surprise

18. Raid on Trenton- “Actions at Objective” • Washington crosses Delaware during a blizzard w/2400 men & 18 cannon • Patrols all night to a jump off point for an early dawn raid • Washington splits force into two groups for assault • Hessian’s caught by surprise & slow to react • Friction: NE storm conceals Rebel crossing & approach • Concentration of American #s, arty, surprise, & luckcarry day • Result: Tactical – 948Hessian POWs, 114 KIA/WIA • Minor tactical but major strategic gain: American morale & propaganda

19. Desperate Gamble #2:Washington’s raid on Princeton • Princeton: similar raid one week later on garrison; • Limited but adequate Americantactical success • Successfully escapes Howe’s 5500 Regulars in pursuit • Major Strategic Impact of both raids: • American morale & confidence soars • Howe forced to rethink strategy of Intimidation • Howe deeply embarrassed & his strategy undermined • Seeks re-validation through decisive battle (fixation)

20. Lead up to Saratoga • Crown orders Canadian Army south • Objective: link up with Howe to concentrate forces • Desires decisive attack on NE frontiers- logistic delays • Burgoyne blames delay on his commander • Convinces Crown he has energy to succeed • Burgoyne gets command of 7K regulars • Ordered to cross Champlain & attack Albany • (See Map overview)

21. Impact of Trenton Victory on Washington • Meanwhile- Trenton/Princeton’s victories also has negative impact on Washington’s Army: • Raised expectations of Congress • Increased pressure for more & better results • Congress also wants decisive battle (like Howe) • Washington still needs trained men & supplies • Resist pressure to engage in set piece engagement • Avoids direct battle with better trained British regulars • Focus his attacks on British loyalists • Harass British foragers in fields

22. Battle of BrandywineCreek(Map p. 37): Howe’s strategy to threaten Philly successful Washington forced to fight in attempt to block advance Results in a series of conventional American defeats (diverted & flanked) Chalked up to lack of experience & training Meanwhile- Burgoyneprepares to deploy from Quebec to Albany link-up Howe Pursues Decisive Battle

23. Quebec to Albany - 1777 • Burgoyne’s extensive prep/logistics result in further delay • Transport: men, food, supplies, arty, personal baggage • Finally embarks on Lake Champlain in late June, 1777 • Americans shadow advance & try to delay it (cut down trees & ambush) • Burgoyne’s LOC becomes overextended on Hudson • 300 miles from Quebec- source of supply • British Foragers severely harassed: • Casualties mount with time & distance • British force reduced to 5500 actionable

24. Key Battles: Freeman’s Farm & Bemis Heights • Americans (Gates) entrench to block British advance • British troop disposition: (Map) • British (4135 Regulars) & Hessians (3116) • Plus approximately 500 Indians & Canadian French Militia • American Disposition: • Americans dug in on high ground with 10K+ • Gates stays put & waits: • RF anchored on Hudson • LF extended 1 mile west from river

25. American Dispute & British Tactical Plan • General Gatesignores Arnold’s advice to move forward • Arnold had urged that inexperienced men be placed fwd on the Left Flank • Tactical objective: refuse American left flank to British attack • Given option to fall back to American lines if pressed • Burgoyne’s Tactical Objective & Plan: • Turn American left flank; • Plan: organize forces into 3 divisions: • Riedeselw/1000 to divert and fix American (Gates’) RF • Burgoyne w/1100 advances center & left; • Fraiserw/2200 to turn American left flank

26. Battle of Freeman’s Farm(19 Sept ’77) • American Unit encounters & routes Brit picket on LF • Disordered pursuit of Brits=> and in turn becomes routed • Arnold commits continentals on British center • Engages in heavy fighting (“to the sound of guns”) • Little support from Gates – stuck on his RF & unengaged; • (Could of/ should of on British center); • Riedesel saves Brit Center w/timely arty & inf. assault • On own initiative attacks Arnold’s RF; • Americans withdraw back to their defensive line;

27. Burgoyne’s Hard Choices • Results: Brits hold battlefield – but that’s all: • Brits: 600 Causalities versusAmericans: 319; • Burgoyne entrenches & awaits (hopefully) for MGClinton • Burgoyne situation grows desperate with time: • Supplies for 5500 will run out in 4 weeks; • Wellentrenched forces of Gates grow to 11K • Burgoyne considers his options: • No word from Clinton or promised diversion to west • Forces difficult choices on Brits: • Withdraw back the way he came; • Attack outnumbered on fortified position; • Political factor: prior imprudent boast & pride • Forced to take one more shot at breakthrough

28. Battle of Bemis Heights 7 Oct 1777 • Burgoyne decides to conduct Recon in Force • Probe Gates’ left flank & see what’s there • 1500 Brits deployed on line facing SW • Advance to ridges of Bemis Heights • Then stops to forage in wheat field • Gates sees opportunity - attacks exposed British flank • Routes Brits assisted ably by his previously relieved subordinate- • Benedict Arnold (Professional pride) • Burgoyne is forced to retreat leaving most of his 600 causalities on the Battle Field

29. Tactical & Operational & Strategic Victory • Burgoyne continues retreat up Hudson; • Gates pursues, overtakes & surrounds; • Burgoyne surrenders on 17 Oct 1777 • Give up weapons & march in captivity • Tactical & Operational victory for Americans • British lose Canadian based Army • Depart Lake Champlain & Hudson area • Abandon attempt to cut off New England via Hudson • Strategic & political impact? • American Independence now more likely • French openly recognize American independence • Soon will formerly announce formal alliance & support • Why did the British lose at Saratoga?

30. Reasons for British Defeat at Saratoga • Howe’s preoccupation w/Penn & Washington • Lack of clear higher HQ guidance & coordination • Burgoyne’s slow conventional strategy • Attendant logistical delays • Persistent but poor judgment of Burgoyne • Force his way through to Albany no matter what • Finally => Gate’s strategic caution & => • Arnold’s aggressive tactics

31. Impact of American Victory at Saratoga • Impressive tactical & operational victory • Americans defeat British Army! • Prevent Albany link-up of two British Armies • Half British forces lost • Significant strategic & political implications: • What is the strategic & political impact? • French recognition & support to Americans • British now have to consider threat from France • Key Strategic Turning Point in War (why?)=>

32. Key Strategic Turning Point in War • Impact on British Army in North America: • British Army in NA suffers 20% depletion • British now forced to adjust strategy accordingly • Viability of American Revolution • Would likely now survive • Political influence on Europe=> • France & other nations: • Provide recognition, support, make alliances with Americans • British Ministry orders major changes • Howe is replaced (by his disliked subordinate- who?) • MG Clinton • Saratoga’s specific impact on British Strategy? • Brits must now fight a global war to preserve the British Empire • North American conflict no longer first priority

33. New British Strategy: The Southern Strategy • Saratoga & French entry into war forced hard choices on British • British Ministry orders changes: The Southern Strategy • 1. Shift strategic focus to South (Georgia, Carolinas, Virginia) • 2. Still seek decisive Battle with Rebels & conduct Raids and Blockades • 3. Support Loyalist and restore Royal government locally in South • 4. Rely more heavily onLoyalists & British Navy (resources stretched)

34. Operations in South • Clinton departs New York for Charles Town: • Conducts effective siege • Takes Charleston by 12 May 1780 • Captures garrison & key port • Immediate operational impact: • Major British victory of war • New British strategy appears to be working • Key impact on Americans: • Shakes Rebel complacency • Now more willing to support war • Clinton confident- returns to NY • Who executes Clinton’s Southern Strategy from now on?

35. Carolina Campaign • Cornwallis commences Ops throughout Carolinas: • Overall: results of his expedition are mixed (initially good) • Cornwallisdestroys Gates’ army of 6000 at Camden • Brits shatter Left & Right Flanksafter firing one volley • Follow up with bayonet charge & overwhelm Gates’ troops • Cornwallis then heads North to NC to exploit victory • Conducts 37 small engagements & then returns to SC

36. American Army’s Problems • Meanwhile Rebel Army Problems Continue • Washington’s struggle to maintain army & morale • Winterof 1780-81 especially bad for Rebels • Mutinies, troop resentment & feelings of abandonment • Lack of support from Congress • Then a series of Key Battles in Southern Theater changes everything: • Battle of Cowpens • Guilford Court House • Siege of Yorktown

37. American Southern Theater Strategy • Nathanial Greene replaces Gates as COMSOUTH • Assessment: Green is excellent choice- key strategist • Most important: along with Knox, a key trusted Lt to Washington • American Forces available & their attendant limitations: • Militia & Irregulars with some Continentals • Able to conduct mostly Raids & logistic interdiction • Greene’s Strategy & operational aim: • Tempt Cornwallis to divide his Army • Then attack each wing in detail • Green sends two divisions of 1000 men to NW & NE • Cornwallis’reaction:takes the bait • Splits his forces & pursues Rebels • 5K remain in SC; 4K to Charlotte & North; 1100 to NW

38. Battle of Cowpens • Brit Commander & Force Composition: • LTC Tarleton with 1100 comprised of light Dragoons & Calvary, attached infantry, 71st Highlanders, & 2 arty pieces • American Commander & Force Composition: • Daniel Morgan with 1100: (320 MD & DL Continentals & 720 Militia, + 125 Calvary) • Effective integration of • Operational Strategy & Tactics: • Morgansets two skirmish lines of Militia & Riflemen in front of his Continentals & invites attack • The Broad River is at his back

39. Battle of Cowpens - Execution • Tarleton makes 8 mile forced march • Attacks immediately w/o recon with his Calvary & was immediately repulsed • Reorganizes with his infantry, 17th Light Dragoons, & loyalist infantry in 1st line • Then Calvary & 71st Highlanders in 2nd line • Rebel militia fires 2 volleys & falls back as planned behind Continentals • Brits able to flank Rebel line but Morgan orders retreat to refuse his flank • Rebels then counter-attack & defeat tired and disorganized Brits • Col Tarleton & his survivors retreat

40. BDA: Tactical Results & Operational Impact • Major tactical victory for Rebels: • British suffered 100 KIA & over 800 captured • Americans had 12 KIA & 60 WIA • Operational impact: • Cornwallis became enraged & fixated on destroying Greene’s Army as his first priority • Morgan’s victory had forced Cornwallis to alter his operational strategy to the pursuit of Greene’s Army • And so they meet finally at the Guilford Court House

41. Cowpens to Guilford Court House • Cornwallis’ Reaction: • Becomes fixated on defeating Green=> heads North Cornwallis pursues Greene to Guilford Court House

42. Guilford Court House • Greene’s Strategy wrtCornwallis’ preoccupation w/him • Avoid Battle while gathering numerical superiority of 2:1 • Then invite Cornwallis to attack his defended position • Execution: Greene’s use of Morgan’s Tactics • Americans: 2600 Militia form up in two skirmish lines=> • Militia placed forward of 1600 Continentals • Directed to fire twice before retiring • Brits attack & destroy Militia- but Continentals hold • Greene then withdrawals in good order • Results: British hold Battlefield – tactical victory? • American casualties: 6% vs. British casualties: 28% of force • Operational Impact: Cornwallis retreats to Wilmington • *Abandons Offensive Campaign in Carolinas& Georgia • Now British focus on holding on to only key coastal Ports • (Rely on Royal Navy for re-supply at coastal ports still held) • Major strategic victory for Greene at operational level

43. Prelude to Yorktown • Cornwallis W/D forces to NE • Heads toward Virginia ports • Cornwallis moves to establish Navy bases there • Crown’s focus is Chesapeake • Cornwallis fortifies Yorktown on 2 Aug 1781 • Washington desires to attack Clinton at New York • Settle humiliating score of 1776 • Conducts recon & reassesses • When Clinton reinforced: • New York becomes too hard • Decides to head South to Virginia instead

44. Yorktown- Deployment • Key role played by French: • Rochambeau & DeGrasse • Key role of French Navy • Interdict & defeat Royal Navy at Battle of Chesapeake- 5Sep 1781 • Result: prevent reinforcement, re-supply, & rescue of Yorktown • Provide direct op. & fire supportto Americans during siege • Washington’s redeployment: • From New York to Virginia: • Ground troops march overland • French Navy sails from RI • Transport big guns & siege arty

45. Yorktown Siege-Execution • Force Disposition: • French & American forces: 16K • Plus French Fleet with local superiority • Verses 8K Brits on the defense • ClassicConventional Strategy • De Saxe’s siege warfare methods of Europe used • Series of parallel trenches • Close in & bombard British positions & their ships

46. Yorktown Results • Tactical Results: major victory for Americans • Defeat of British Southern expeditionary force • Operational & Strategic Impact: • Brits unable to replace losses in North America (NA) • Ends major ops & engagements in NA • Minor skirmishes only over next 18 months • Yorktown victory has major Political Impact: • American victory & independence now virtually assured • British political & military commitment to NA lacking • British lose political will to continue war • To quoteLord North: “It’s all over!”

47. Overall Assessment • Contrast of Amer. War of Independence w/Europe’s wars • European limited war aims vs. American conquest of peoples • Key tactical victories w/strategic & politicalsignificance: • 1st tier: Saratoga & Yorktown • 2nd tier:Boston siege, Trenton, Princeton, Cowpens • British strategic challenges: • Much wider global war for British • Required incremental adjustments to British strategy & tactics: • Intimidation/show of force=> Recover territory & project “invincibility” • Then to: recover South first, put loyalist in charge, cut off New England • Throughout: Wage decisive battle(if possible) • Role of Royal Navy & Loyalists • Royal Navy played dominate role from start • (re-supply, re-deployment, & operational & fire support & sea control) • Loyalists’ rolegrew with time- especially toward end in South

48. Overall Assessment- 2 • American strategic challenges: • First & foremost: Stay alive & survive • Required adjustments to strategy & tactics • (Militia inadequate against regulars) • Role & professionalization of Continental Army • Von Steuban & French supportcritical • Integration of Militia & Partisans: • Instructed in Simplified tactics (Morgan) • (Two Ranks of Militia fire twice then retire to rear) • Then Continentals take over from there • Tactical Adjustments adapted by both sides: • Small scale mobility adapted to NA environment • (Terrain: forest vs. European plains) • Simplified tactics (favored American citizen soldiers more)

49. Overall Assessment- 3 • Conventional Victory ended the war (where?): • Collaboration of French & American Forces: • Fr. Regulars, Continentals, & Militia in coordinated assault • French Fleet in direct operational & logistic support • Critical at ?_____________________ • Key Contrast of American & Europe’s Wars: • Total conquestvs. 18th cent. Conventional limited War • Waged by Militia/citizen soldiers vs. professional regulars • Role of soldier, civilian, classes, methods blurred • All classes served in American Army & Navy • Support of the people essential to success • Ultimately Americans relied on its people to fight • Win independence and form a new Nation

50. Back-up Slides