Fundamentals of Organizational Communication

2. Fundamentals of Organizational Communication Participating in Organizations: Developing Critical Organizational Communication Competencies Chapter Eight

3. Participating in Organizations • It is fair to say that decision making, problem solving, interpersonal and small-group interactions, and presentations can be described a guiding processes for all organizational functioning.

4. Defining Decision Making and Problem Solving • Decision making - process of choosing from among several alternatives. • Problem solving - multistage process of moving an issue, situation, or state from an undesirable to a more desirable condition.

5. Defining Decision Making and Problem Solving • Decision making depends on individuals and groups choosing from among known alternatives. • Problem solving is the process by which individuals and groups generate alternatives and evaluate those alternatives in light of the identified problem.

6. Defining Decision Making and Problem Solving • All decision making and problem solving involve a level of risk. • Decisions are desired courses of action before the results of the action are known. • Unknown results represent risk.

7. Defining Decision Making and Problem Solving • A good decision-making process will not guarantee success, but a poor process will almost certainly contribute to failure.

8. Influences for Decision Making & Problem Solving • Four primary factors influence individual and group decision making and problem solving • Organizational culture • Decision/problem issues • Technical competencies • Communication competencies

10. Influences for Decision Making & Problem Solving • Organizational culture • Organizing can be seen as a conscious limitation of alternatives and therefore decision making. • It is this limitation of alternatives (decisions) that becomes the shared realities of the organization or its culture

11. Influences for Decision Making & Problem Solving • Organizational culture • Organizational cultures influence the methods of decision making. • It is appropriate to conclude that the methods and levels of participation desired for decision making and problem solving are reflections of organizational values and culture.

12. Influences for Decision Making & Problem Solving • Decision/Problem Issue • Complexity, resources, importance, and previous experience concerning problems all influence how individuals and organizations approach decisions.

13. Influences for Decision Making & Problem Solving • Communication Competency • Our perceptions of our personal competencies and our predispositions for communication help determine how and when we engage in individual and group decision making.

14. Influences for Decision Making & Problem Solving • Communication Competency • Our interpersonal effectiveness contributes to whether we can influence others during problem solving.

15. Influences for Decision Making & Problem Solving • Communication Competency • Because decision making and problem solving occur through human communication, the ability and willingness of all involved to engage in quality participation influence the ultimate quality of decisions.

16. Influences for Decision Making & Problem Solving • Technical Competency • Excellence in decision making requires a communication process that supports excellence and appropriate technical backgrounds or information.

17. Methods for Decision Making & Problem Solving • Individual Approach • Leader Mandate • Majority Rule • Powerful Minority • Consensus

18. Methods for Decision Making & Problem Solving • It is important to note that in the twenty-first century, the emphasis on decision making and problem solving is rapidly shifting from an individual to a group or team responsibility.

19. Methods for Decision Making & Problem Solving • The emphasis on group/team problem solving and decision making increasingly asks those who will actually implement a decision to make that decision.

20. Methods for Decision Making & Problem Solving • Individual Approach • Individuals make decisions with a range of involvement from others. • Individual decision makers have the option to consider their alternatives alone or with others.

21. Methods for Decision Making & Problem Solving • Leader Mandate • Leader-made decisions - leader of a group makes a decision and announces the decision to the group. • Leader-made decisions frequently have less group commitment than decisions in which members are more actively involved.

22. Methods for Decision Making & Problem Solving • Majority Rule • When more than 50 percent of a group agree, a decision is reached. • The majority rule may not adequately account for the views of the minority. • Majority-rule decisions can be high in quality, but they can also ignore central issues of concern.

23. Methods for Decision Making & Problem Solving • Powerful Minority • When group membership is characterized by unequal distribution of power among members, those members who have the most power (although in numerical minority) are in a position to assume decision-making responsibility.

24. Methods for Decision Making & Problem Solving • Powerful Minority • This method can be effective when the minority members have the best information on which to base the decision.

25. Methods for Decision Making & Problem Solving • Consensus • Results in a decision all members can agree is best and all can support. • It may take more time than other methods. • All will usually support the decision even though it is not the decision some might have preferred.

26. Barriers to Effective Decision Making and Problem Solving • Organizational Barriers • Only about 50% of organizational decisions are ever implemented. • No commitment to the decision • Lack of resources • Organizational Silence • Organizational structures and policies • Centralization • Lack of formal upward feedback mechanisms

27. Barriers to Effective Decision Making and Problem Solving • Task Barriers • Groups make poor decisions when they short-circuit problem analysis. • Inadequate description of problems

28. Barriers to Effective Decision Making and Problem Solving • Procedural Barriers • Groups also make poor decisions when role ambiguity contributes to confusion about responsibilities, process, or leadership. • Lack of agendas, too much or too little time for meetings, and a variety of other procedural issues are related to low-quality decisions.

29. Barriers to Effective Decision Making and Problem Solving • Interpersonal Barriers • We know from experience that poor leadership or a variety of self-centered or ego-centered behaviors can negatively influence any group. • Group cohesion – too much or too little - can influence the quality of decisions (groupthink).

30. Problem Solving Processes • Processes help individuals and groups move from problem identification to determination of action appropriate for problem needs. • Processes focus on moving situations, issues, or problem from undesirable to more desirable states.

31. Problem Solving Processes • Although decision making occurs during problem solving, problem-solving processes include numerous other stages. • The goal of group-process designs is creative decisions that will contribute to organizational excellence.

32. Problem Solving Processes • The Standard Agenda • Brainstorming • The Delphi Technique • Nominal Group Process • Experientially-Based Processes

33. Problem Solving Processes • The Standard Agenda: A Rational Model • A group application of what John Dewey (1910) identified as reflective thinking necessary for individual problem solving. • Diagnostic Phase • Solution Phase

34. Problem Solving Processes • The Standard Agenda: A Rational Model • Diagnostic Phase • Understanding the charge • Understanding and phrasing the question • Fact-finding • Setting criteria and limitations

35. Problem Solving Processes • The Standard Agenda: A Rational Model • Solution Phase • Discovering and selecting solutions • Preparing and presenting the final report

36. Problem Solving Processes • Brainstorming • This techniques breaks away for linear and controlled processes and seeks creative thinking based on four basic rules: • Criticism is withheld during generation • All ideas are welcome even absurd • Quantity is wanted • Combinations/alternations are sought

37. Problem Solving Processes • Brainstorming • Brainstorming has evolved over the years to include the use of metaphors and fantasy chaining • Metaphors are used to stimulate innovation and creativity • Fantasy chaining is a form of brainstorming

38. Problem Solving Processes • Brainstorming • Synectics uses both metaphors and fantasy chaining • Synectics generally refers to a facilitated process through which group members explore problems in terms of what the problem is also like and how it can best be described.

39. Problem Solving Processes • The Delphi Technique • Designed to balance the influence of strong personalities on the problem-solving process. • This techniques is group problem solving conducted through written response and critique of situations and the responses to those situations

40. Problem Solving Processes • The Delphi Technique • A group leader, referred to as a charging authority, forms the group and directs its activities through written correspondence. • The technique works through the centralized direction of the charging authority.

41. Problem Solving Processes • The Delphi Technique • The effectiveness of the Delphi technique rests largely with the leader’s understanding of the issues, ability to communicate those issues to others, and capability in selecting competent group members.

42. Problem Solving Processes • The Delphi Technique • The Delphi Technique is designed to equalize power among group members and minimize the importance of oral communication skills. • Written communication skills, however, replace oral skills in importance and influence.

43. Problem Solving Processes • Nominal Group Process • A combination of individual and group idea generation. • The process begins with individuals silently writing down their ideas and then reporting them back to the group for discussion and decision.

44. Problem Solving Processes • Experientially-Based Processes • “Bounded Rationality” (Simon) • Individuals often make organizational decisions even though realizing that their decisions are based on partial information. • “satisficing” – good enough if not the best • We know that the fully rational or ideal solutions often is simply not available or possible.

45. End of Chapter 8a

46. Increasing Decision-Making and Problem-Solving Effectiveness • Two types of skills are necessary for problem solving: • Interaction process skills • Fact-finding and evaluation skills

47. Increasing Decision-Making and Problem-Solving Effectiveness • Interaction process skills • Based on an understanding of the communication process; an awareness of individual predispositions, strategies, and tactics in a variety of circumstances; and knowledge and sensitivity for decision-making and problem-solving processes.

48. Increasing Decision-Making and Problem-Solving Effectiveness • Interaction process skills • Interaction process skills help individuals and groups structure problem-solving discussions, exhibit productive individual behaviors, and avoid behaviors destructive to effective decision making and problem solving.

49. Increasing Decision-Making and Problem-Solving Effectiveness • Interaction process skills • Seven General Principles (Brilhart) • Focus on the problem before talking • Begin with a single question • Develop a thorough statement of the problem analysis • Group agrees on criteria for evaluation • Resist evaluation when generating ideas • Avoid groupthink • Verbally plan for implementation

50. Interaction process skills Mind Locks (Oech) The right answer That’s not logical Follow the rules Be practical Avoid ambiguity Interaction process skills Mind Locks (Oech) To err is wrong Play is frivolous That’s not my area Don’t be foolish I’m not creative Increasing Decision-Making and Problem-Solving Effectiveness