BIOLOGICAL COMPOUNDS & NUTRIENTS

1. BIOLOGICAL COMPOUNDS & NUTRIENTS

2. Organic molecules • Molecules are called organic compounds if they: • contain carbon-to-carbon bonds AND • are made exclusively by plants and/or animals, • (This naturally excludes compounds like CO2, which is made by living organisms, but not exclusively— plenty-of other processes produce CO2).

4. ORGANIC COMPOUNDS • Contains CARBON with either a HYDROGEN or another/other CARBON/S attached to it. • CO2: • CH4 • CCl4: • C6H12O6: INORGANIC ORGANIC ORGANIC ORGANIC

5. CARBOHYDRATES • "CARBO" = CARBON; "HYDRATE" = WATER • Hence the elements are Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen and the • ratio of Hydrogen to oxygen is ALWAYS 2:1 (2 hydrogen's for every 1 oxygen, as in water) C6H12O6 = glucose C12H22O11 = sucrose Formula = CnH2nOn

6. Monosaccharides– the monomers of carbohydrates • Monosaccharides (single sugar units) E.g., Glucose, fructose, galactose • Properties Soluble in water, sweet, can form crystals • Functions Serve as a source of energy e.g. glucose.

7. SUCROSE SUGAR – FOR TEA • Disaccharides are made from monosaccharides as follows • GLUCOSE + FRUCTOSE sucrase (enzyme) + H2O (found in ) • GLUCOSE + GLUCOSE maltase (enzyme) + H2O (found in ) • GLUCOSE + GALACTOSE lactase (enzyme)H2O (found in ) • In each case, enzymes remove one ______________ molecule by a process called __________________ to join the two smaller molecules together. MALTOSE GERMINATING SEEDS LACTOSE DAIRY - MILK WATER CONDENSATION

8. Disaccharides • Physical properties:Soluble in water and sweet to the taste. • When 2 monosaccharides react together they form a disaccharide (meaning two sugar units). This reaction is known as condensation and this reaction involves the removal of a water molecule. CONDENSATION - H2O

9. POLYSACCAHRIDES • A polysaccharide is a POLYMER ("poly" = many), made of many single units or monosaccharides called MONOMERS • Polysaccharides are formed by condensation reactions where many monosaccharides are joined together, in a process generally called POLYMERISATION. Polysaccharides are hydrolysed (by the addition of water) into simple monosaccharides . • They are insoluble in water and are not sweet.

10. Examples of polysaccharides are • CELLULOSE - • LIGNIN - • GLYCOGEN - • STARCH – • PECTIN - CELL WALLS – PRIMARY CELL WALLS –SECONDARY (WATERPROOF) IN LIVER AND MUSCLES IN LEUCOPLASTS IN MIDDLE LAMELLA

11. Made by CONDENSATION of many glucose units only

12. Physical properties of Carbohydrates • Simple carbohydrates are soluble in water • Polysaccharides are generally insoluble in water • Monosaccharides and most disaccharides taste sweet

13. CHEMICAL POTENTIAL ENERGY GLYCOGEN STARCH BLOOD PHLOEM STREAM CELLULOSE LIGNIN CHITIN PECTIN CELLULOSE

14. LIPIDS OR FATS • C, H & O • Ratio of H:O = >2:1 • 1 Glycerol and 3 fatty acids

15. 1 = GLYCEROL 2 = FATTY ACID 3 = ESTERBOND • THE DIFFERENT FATTY ACIDS MAKE UP THE DIFFERENT LIPIDS • SHORTER FATTY ACIDS FORM OILS • LONGER FATTY ACIDS FORM SOLIDS (BUTTER) • VERY LONG FATTY ACIDS FORM WAXES

16. Fatty acids are classified as being SATURATED OR UNSATURATED • Saturated Fatty Acids have _______________________ carbon –to-carbon bonds so they are completely saturated with hydrogen. These tend to occur in ____________________ fats like butter and cream, and they generally increase cholesterol in the body. Limit them in your food! • Unsaturated fatty acids have ________________ C-to-C bonds, so some spaces are not saturated with hydrogen. They occur mainly in _______________ oils like canola oil and olive oil, etc., and they decrease cholesterol. It’s much healthier to consume these fats than animal fats. SINGLE ANIMAL DOUBLE PLANT

17. Cholesterol and heart disease: • Your body needs cholesterol to make new cells, insulate nerves and produce some hormones. Normally the _________makes all the cholesterol you need, but people also take in cholesterol with foods like _________, _______________ and ________________________. LIVER EGGS MILK RED MEAT

18. Cholesterol and heart disease: • High cholesterol can cause a cardiovascular problem called ATHEROSCLEROSIS - fat is deposited between the epithelial and muscle layer of blood vessels, causing the lumen / cavity to become _________________ so a partial blockage develops & slows down blood flow. NARROWER

19. PAIN ANGINA HEART ATTACK • In the heart, this causes a reduced supply of oxygen to the heart muscle, causing _________ called • _______________. A __________ __________ will result if the obstruction causes a complete blockage. • Cholesterol is transported in the blood in 2 forms; • LDL's (Low Density Lipoproteins): also called _______________ cholesterol. This contains little protein and much cholesterol and Is the chief agent causing arterial blockage (e.g., ________________, _______________) • HDL's (High Density Lipoproteins): Also called ____________ cholesterol. This form has lots of proteins and little cholesterol. If actually works to ___________ fatty deposits in the blood stream. BAD BUTTER CREAM GOOD REDUCE

20. REMEMBER: High cholesterol levels in the blood stream cause NO SYMPTOMS at all • Everyone over the age of 20 should have their cholesterol levels checked at least every 5 years, thereby decreasing their chances of heart disease. It's definitely also advisable to decrease _____________________ fats and INCREASE PLANT FATS, fruit and vegetables in the diet. ANIMAL

21. CONDENSATION • Fats or lipids are formed when I glycerol and 3 fatty acids are joined by enzymes by means of _______________________________. • 1 glycerol + 3 fatty acids 1 lipid + 3 H20 • The process ___________________can be used to break the lipid down again: • 1 lipid + 3 H20 molecules 1 glycerol + 3 fatty acids • 2.4 Physical properties of lipids: • They are insoluble in _______________________. • They are soluble in ______________________________________ etc. • They are hydrophobic, i.e., _________________________. HYDROLYSIS WATER ALCOHOL, ETHER, AMMONIA REPEL WATER

22. Biological importance of Lipids: CHEMICAL POTENTIAL CELL MEMBRANE CUTICLE PROTECT INSULATE VITAMINS

23. PROTEINS • C, H, O, NITROGEN (+ P,S) • No fixed H:O ratio, varies greatly. • Consist of the monomers amino acidsjoined together. There are 20 natural amino acids, used to construct MANY, MANY proteins.

24. Monomers of Proteins • The ___________________ __________ form the basic molecules (monomers) of which proteins are constructed. AMINO ACIDS

25. DIPEPTIDE TRIPEPTIDE POLYPEPTIDE A molecule is only called a protein if it contains more than _________ amino acids.. The Smallest known protein is ____________, which has 51 amino acids; others have thousands. 50 INSULIN

26. Dipeptides • There are 20 naturally occurring amino acids which we call the essential amino acids for life. • The amino acid MONOMERS are used to build up proteins. • Amino acids join to each other by a CONDENSATION REACTION. WATER is removed in a reaction between the amino group of one amino acid and the carboxyl group of the other. • They are broken down by means of HYDROLYSIS • The bond between the amino acid molecules in a protein molecule is called a PEPTIDE BOND

27. HYDROLYSIS • Notice in the drawing below, we have shown the HYDROLYSIS, where water is added to break up sucrose into two monosaccharides, one glucose and one fructose molecule. Sucrase enzyme + HYDROLYSIS + H2O Amino acids are joined together by _____________ and broken down by ____________________ CONDENSATION HYDROLYSIS

28. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES - PROTEINS MACRO-MOLECULES • They are ____________________ (large) • Sensitive to changes in _____ (acidity/alkalinity) • Sensitive to ______________ (cold does not affect the structure but high temperatures can cause a breakdown in their structure called _________________ pH TEMPERATURE DENATURATION

29. The Denaturing of Proteins: Normal protein (with its _______________________ bonds intact and able to function. INTRA-MOLECULAR Denatured Protein: bonds are __________ so it loses its ___________ and can’t function. BROKEN SHAPE • CAUSES: • pH • Temperature • increase

30. Biological importance of Proteins: PROTOPLASM CELL MEMBRANES ENZYMES CHROMOSOMES ENERGY SOURCE INSULIN PIGMENTS ANTI-BODIES

31. Polymers • All organic compounds are built up into POLYMERS by the process of _______________________ and can be broken down by _________________, e.g., during digestion. • METABOLISM consists of building up processes called _____________________________ and breaking down processes called ________________________________. CONDENSATION HYDROLYSIS ANABOLISM CATABOLISM

33. FOOD TESTS • All the tests described below are CONTROL TESTS to show what a positive result looks like - we will be using the actual substance we are lasting for with the appropriate method. • This will show you what a positive test looks like, so that further tests on food samples can be COMPARED with these controls. • When you are testing a food sample, DO NOT ADD THE SUBSTANCE TESTED FOR!

34. CRUSH IT OR CUT IT FINELY TO INCREASE THE SURFACE AREA OF THE REAGENT TO REACT WITH • Two procedures to be followed when testing food samples for various compounds: • ___________________________________ • ___________________________________ ADD WATER TO CREATE A LIQUID MEDIUM FOR THE CHEMICAL RECTIONS TO WORK IN

35. GLUCOSE TEST • Place a small amount of glucose powder (or food) into a test tube. Addwater & shake it. Light a Bunsen burner. • Add a few drops of BENEDICTS SOLUTION to the mixture and shake. • Use a test tube holder to heat the solution over the flame, moving it constantly and keeping the open end of the test tube away from people. (Heat Is used here to ____________________________________________________ • Record colour changes. DO NOT overheat the mixture - stop when it boils, • RESULT: • No glucose • some glucose • more glucose • lots of glucose • CONCLUSION SPEED UP THE RATE OF THE REACTION BLUE GREEN YELLOW REDDISH-ORANGE IF A SUBSTANCE TURNS ORANGE IN THE PRESENCE OF BENEDICT’S SOLUTION AND HEAT, IT CONTAINS GLUCOSE

36. TO TEST FOR THE PRESENCE OF STARCH: THE REACTION IS FAST ENOUGH • Place a small amount of starch powder (or food) Into a test tube and add a little water. Shake it. No heat is needed - why? ____________________________ • Add a few drops of IODINE SOLUTION and shake it. • Record colour changes. • RESULT: • ______________________________________________________ • CONCLUSION: • ______________________________________________________ BROWN IODINE CHANGES TO BLUE-BLACK ANY FOOD THAT TURNS FROM BROWN TO BLUE-BLACK IN THE PRESENCE OF IODINE CONTAINS STARCH.

37. Biological Compounds Page 9 • All organic compounds are built up into POLYMERS by the process of _______________________ and can be broken down by _________________, e.g., during digestion. • METABOLISM consists of building up processes called _____________________________ and breaking down processes called ________________________________. CONDENSATION HYDROLYSIS ANABOLISM CATABOLISM

38. TO TEST FOR THE PRESENCE OF PROTEINS: • The Biuret test: • Put a small amount of raw egg white (or food) into a test tube. Add a little • water and shake It gently. • Add a few drops of COPPER SULPHATE solution (CuS04). • Use a different dropper to fill about one third of the test tube SODIUM HYDROXIDE solution (NaOH). • Go back to your group and shake the test tube when you get there, note colour changes. • RESULT: • ____________________________________________________________ • CONCLUSION: • ____________________________________________________________ COLOUR CHANGES: BLUE TO VIOLET ANY FOOD THAT TURNS VIOLET WITH CuSO4 (COPPER SULPHATE) AND NaOH (CAUSTIC SODA) CONTAINS PROTEIN

39. Page 11 BLUE BENEDICTS YES GR/YE/OR IODINE NO BLUE-BLACK BROWN CuSO4 + NaOH NONE MAUVE/ PURPLE NO

40. Food labels • To compare different foods, use the Nutritional content per 100g (this is also easily converted into % (30g per 100g = 30% • Keep fat content to a minimum • Water is seldom included (if it adds up to less than 100g, the remainder is water). • Carbohydrates include only digestible (starch, sugar), not fibre, cellulose • Go for fewer refined carbs (like sugars)

43. CARBOHYDRATES • Which compound forms the majority of this food item? __________________ (1) • What is the main specificcarbohydrate in an Aero bar likely to be? • ______________________________________ (2) 3 Use the serving size to calculate the percentage fats in this food item. Show your working. (3) 4 Do you think that these fats are likely to be saturated or unsaturated? Give a reason for your answer. (2) LACTOSE. AERO IS A CHOCOLATE AND IS MADE OF DAIRY AND ADDED SUGAR (SUCROSE) 29,9/100 X 100 = 0,299 X 100 = 29,9% (OR 29,9G OF 100G = 29,9%) SATURATED: CHOCOLATE CONTAINS CREAM WHICH CONTAINS SATURATED FATS

44. If a person needs 150 g of protein in a day to maintain her body, how many of these bars should she consume daily if she eats nothing else? Give your answer to the nearest whole bar. _____________________________________________ (3) • Would you suggest that she eats Aero bars in order to obtain the correct protein content in her diet? Give a reason for your answer. • ____________________________________________(3) • Calculate the percentage water in this food item • __________________________________________ (2) 150G/3G = 50 = 50 BARS. NO WAY! ALTHOUGHS HE GETS THE REQUIRED PROTEINS SHE WILL EAT TOO MUCH FAT AND CARBOHYDRATES. 100 – (57,6 + 29,9 + 6,5) = 6/100 = 6%

45. Vitamins Vitamins: Group of complex organic compounds, needed in small quantities that help your body maintain normal metabolism, growth, and development. Vitamins mainly made by plants and animals obtain theirs from the food they eat.

46. They have no energy value - taking a vitamin supplement can't "give you energy", but can optimise certain functions like energy release from food. • They act as important REGULATORS in body processes and are essential in the maintenance of good health.

47. Vitamins Two Groups of Vitamins: • Water-Soluble • Fat-Soluble Water-Soluble Vitamins: • Vitamins that dissolve in water and are NOT stored in your body for future use Vitamin B and Vitamin C

48. Fat-Soluble Vitamins: Vitamins that dissolve into and are transported by fat They can be stored in fat tissue, the liver, and the kidneys. Vitamins A, D, E, and K Vitamins

49. Examples of Fat-Soluble Vitamins: Vitamin A: Essential for forming of a pigment in the rods of the eye (retina) to see in dim light. Maintains good vision, promotes body cell growth, helps protect teeth Food sources: green vegetables (carrots, spinach, gem squash), dairy products Deficiency diseases: Nightblindness

50. Vitamin B3: Acts as a co-enzyme in cell respiration, assisting energy release from food. • Food sources: Red meat, unrefined cereals, Marmite, Bovril • Deficiency disease: Pellagra – skin rashes, redness, swollen red tongue, diarrhea