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2. We mentioned last time that it took the arrival of a ‘proper’ ambassador, Sir Thomas Roe, sent by King James I in 1615, before the Company was able to set up a base in India – Hawkins had got on really well with Jahangir – anyone remember why? On his arrival at Agra, Sir Thomas Roe set the tone before the Emperor Jahangir: I passed on until I came to a place railed in right under him with an ascent of three steps where I made him reverence and he bowed his body; and so went within it. I demanded a chair, but was answered no man ever sat in that place, but I was desired as a courtesy to ease myself against a pillar, covered with silver that held up his canopy. (What ‘tone’ do you think he was setting?) In the end, Roe stayed at the Great Mughal’s court for more than three years, trying to extract better trade terms for the East India Company; and it is clear that he was encouraged to stay by Jahangir, who was rather fascinated by this proud ‘alien.’

3. Roe wasn’t altogether happy, exclaiming: I would sooner die than be subject to the slavery the Persian [ambassador] is content with. But he did obtain permission for the Company to open factories in certain Indian towns. This really made Surat (see map overleaf) a permanent base for English trade, and possibly for expansion. There seems no doubt that Roe’s proud and dignified behaviour reflected well on his nation, especially as the Company was beginning to demonstrate its sea power to the Indians. [A single British ship, the Red Dragon, had driven 4 Portuguese galleons and a number of frigates out of the port was what most impressed the Emperor] What was most important however was that he did not advocate the approach of the Portuguese and the Dutch – wars of conquest in India. He advocated ‘statecraft’; wheeler dealing rather than guns blazing and sword flashing.

4. Roomy and cheap to build and work, the fluyt (English ‘flyboat’, French ‘flûte’, Spanish ‘felibote’) was much used as a general service cargo vessel from the later sixteenth century onwards.

5. It is the beggaring of Portugal, notwithstanding his many rich residences and territories, that he keeps soldiers that spend it, yet his garrisons are mean. He never profited by the Indies, since he defended them. Observe this well. It hath been also the error of the Dutch, who seek plantation there by the sword. They turn a wonderful stock, they prowl in all places, they possess some of the best; yet their dead pays consume all their gain. Let this be received as a rule that if you will profit, seek it at sea, and in quiet trade; …. [What is the point Roe is making here?] In the short term, with the rivalry between competing Europeans this was to prove difficult to follow but, in the long term, one can argue that the extension of English control in the area was due largely to playing-off of one group against another and the collaboration of various Indian elites with the English authorities.

6. Before he left Agra in 1619, Roe also informed the Company that: My sincerity toward you in all actions is without spot; my neglect of private gain is without example, and my frugality beyond your expectation. [What is the point Roe is making here?] You might think this piece of self-advertising is a bit pompous but it went to the heart of what was to become the East India Company’s chief problem for the next century and a half – their willingness to be bribed and the greed of many of its senior people. From 1619 – 1640 Surat was the chief base for the British in India. In 1641, Francis Day, a company representative in Southern India, obtained from a local Hindu raja a strip of land on which he built the fortified factory of St. George . This, in time, became Madras.

7. Fort St George At the time, in England, the Civil War between Charles I and Cromwell’s Roundheads was underway. Now, even though Cromwell’s main concern was the expansion of colonialism in the West Indies and America the Commonwealth did make real efforts to protect and encourage British shipping on a global scale So, at the point when Charles I was having his head chopped off, Parliament passed a Navigation Act followed by another in 1660. What this amounted to was that all colonial trade had to be carried in British ships, and all British ship-owners were entitled legally to protection by the British navy. In 1660 when Charles II was restored to the throne this entitlement was confirmed. Not only that but from 1650 the administration embarked on a substantial ship-building program which also continued after the change of regime. Cromwell’s aggressive policy towards the Netherlands led to the first Anglo-Dutch war (1652 – 4) where Admiral Blake did a great deal to reduce the effectiveness of the Dutch as powerful naval and commercial rivals.

8. 362 years ago (30th January 2009), Charles I stepped out of the Banqueting House onto a wooden scaffold to be faced with a crowd of Londoners, and a waiting executioner. Charles I Cromwell Charles II

9. In 1661 Charles II married the Portuguese Catherine of Braganza and, as part of her dowry, she brought with her Bombay (Mumbai as we now know it.) This was widely considered to be the finest port on the West Indian coast. Charles, chronically short of cash, decided in 1668 to rent Bombay to the East India Company. Twenty years later, growing English commercial activity in the Ganges delta, led to the founding in 1690 of the fortified factory Fort St William. From this was to develop the enormously successful administrative and commercial centre of Calcutta. Although it was built among unhealthy, low lying swamps, the city came to symbolize British power in the densely populated province of Bengal. Even more it became the capital of British India remaining so until the building of New Delhi in the early C20.

10. Calcutta also became a city of some architectural note, with grand British buildings aping European models – the churches of St. John’s and St. Andrew’s were modeled on St. Martin-in-the –Fields and the High Court upon the Ypres Cloth Hall. Within a century of its formation, the basic pattern of the East India Company’s landholdings in the subcontinent was now clear. Three great and rapidly expanding centres of English and Company power established on the west and south-east coasts and on the Ganges Delta.

11. In between lay a massive, often heavily populated inland area, where Europeans were as strange as aliens from outer space and where Mughal and local princely power was paramount. For the Company to even attempt to control part of this huge area seemed almost unnecessary as the C17 drew to a close. But how were these company people viewed back home? And how did people from a windswept set of islands on the edge of the Atlantic adapt to Indian conditions? Some company servants ‘went native’ (also referred to as ‘going troppo’) especially in the C17 and C18 centuries; this was looked upon as ‘bad form’ or ‘letting the side down’, incompatible with the deportment of a European elite.

12. At the outset, life for these employees was often unpleasant and sometimes short. Englishmen in Surat, Madras and Calcutta continued to wear thick clothing, eat a heavy meal at midday and drink too much wine. One employee said: At home men are famous for doing nothing; here they are infamous for their honest endeavors. At home is respect and reward; abroad is disrespect and heartbreaking. At home is augmentation of wages; abroad no more than the third of wages. At home is content; abroad nothing so much as grief, cares and displeasure. At home is safety; abroad no security. At home is liberty; abroad the best is bondage. [What is the point the employee is making?] In the early 1670s, in an attempt to improve some of the men’s lives in Bombay – and perhaps to cut down on liaison with Indian women – the East India Company sent out twenty single Englishwomen of ‘sober and civil lives’. This experiment in marital and social engineering did not go smoothly.

13. The Company found that some of the women ‘are grown scandalous to our nation, religion and government,’ and the proper authorities were told to ‘give them all fair warning that they do apply themselves to a more sober and Christian conversation, otherwise the sentence is this, that they shall be confined totally of their liberty to go abroad, and fed with bread and water till they are embarked on board ship for England.’ [What is this saying about the women?] Bombay wasn’t the only den of iniquity. The Chaplain in Madras in 1676 wrote a scandalized letter to the Company directors concerning the moral state of the English community there.

14. I do earnestly wish there may be more inspection taken what persons you send into these places; for there come hither some thousand murderers, some men stealers, some popish,(?) some come over under the notion of single persons and unmarried, who yet have their wives in England, and here live in adultery……Others pride themselves in making others drink till thry are insensible, and then strip them naked, and in that posture cause them to be carried through the streets to their dwelling place… [What do you think the writer thought of the people being sent out to India?] Hardly the way to construct an image of a godly, righteous and responsible alien minority! And if that wasn’t bad enough, there was also the matter of the conduct of trade with India. The central problem was still that English-made goods were not always easy to exchange for Indian ones. Consequently the EIC had to plug the trade gap between imports and exports with silver bullion – which was far from being an efficient trading system.

15. The MP Henry Martyn said: There is no reason ,that the Indians will take off any of our manufactures, as long as there is such a difference in the price of English and Indian labour, as long as the labour or manufacture of the East Indies shall be valued there at by one-sixth part of the price of like labour or manufacture here in England….Therefore, unless now and then for curiosities, English manufacturers will seldom go to India….. ….The next complaint against this trade is of the labourer: that he is driven from his employment to beg his bread; by the permission of Indian manufacturers to come to England, English manufactures must be lost Now if the EIC had remained limited in its trading ambitions these arguments might have carried more weight but as it was diversifying its trade – in China tea (1700) for example – the early problems of commerce with India were less painful than they might have been.

16. As it was the first century of the EIC’s commercial history was one of steady if unspectacular progress. • Politically and militarily however, it was a different ball game. T • here was the hostility of the French and Dutch towards English ‘interlopers’. T • here was the gradual disintegration of Mughal power that had begin with the reign of Emperor Aurangzeb (1658 – 1707) and, consequent upon this, was the rise of Shivaji, the great Maratha leader who began to flex his muscles in west-central India. • For a time the Maratha Confederacy was to achieve a paramount position in India.

17. What point is being made here? The prestige of Shivaji rivaled that of the Great Mughal himself as can be seen: The coverings of the royal seat were a grotesque combination of ancient Hindu asceticism and modern Mogul luxury: tiger skin below and velvet on top….On the right stood two large fish-heads of gold with very big teeth, and on the left several horses’ tails…and a pair of gold scales, evenly balanced (the emblem of justice) on a very costly lance head. All these were copied from the Mogul court. At the palace gate were placed on either hand pitchers full of water covered with bunches of leaves, and also two young elephants and two beautiful horses. With gold bridles and rich trappings. These were auspicious tokens according to Hindu ideas. Shivaji

18. It was soon apparent that not only was the Company’s position at Surat, Bombay and Madras threatened by the growing anarchy, but that Calcutta was at risk too. Understandably perhaps, the directors of the Company were anxious to appoint men of high calibre and sophisticated education during these hazardous times. So, when in 1687 they chose a new member of the Council for Madras, they insisted he should be a: Man of learning, and competently well read in ancient histories of the Greeks and Latins, which with a good stock of natural parts only can render a man fit for government and political science, martial prudence and other requisites to rule over a great city….For its not being bred a boy in India, or staying long there and speaking the language or understanding critically the trade of the place, that is sufficient to fit a man for such a command……though all these qualifications are very good in their kind….

19. Even outstanding and good men could do little without proper support from home. It was inevitable then, amid the decline of Mughal power, that persuasive voices began to demand a policy of military consolidation in India. This is what Job Charnock had to say about the pitiful state of Bengal in 1678: The whole kingdom is lying in a very miserable feeble condition, the great ones plundering and robbing the feebler. [Have a look back at what they thought the new leader should be like. Do you think they had the right idea? What do you think Job Charnock would have thought of that?]

20. Gerald Aungier, a company man, had this to say: The state of India…is much altered of what it was; that justice and respect, wherewith strangers in general…were wont to be treated with, is quite laid aside….our complaints, remonstrances, paper protests and threatenings are laughed at…In violent distempers violent cures are only successful…the times now require you to manage your general commerce with your sword in your hand. [What did Gerald mean by that?] The sword was indeed to play a far larger part in furthering the fortunes of the East India Company. But that wasn’t all. After William of Orange's accession to the throne, in partnership with his wife, Queen Mary Stuart (1688), he allowed the formation of a New East India Company ten years later. Soon other traders were being given a free hand in Indian Commerce.

21. The old and the new EIC competed briefly, and not very profitably, with each other and then, just as England and Scotland became a unified state in 1707, so the two companies were amalgamated. In 1708 the United Company of Merchants of England Trading to the East Indies was formed. It was this body that was to last for a further 150 years before the cataclysm of the great Indian rebellion of 1857-8.