MISDEMEANORS AND HIGH CRIMES

MISDEMEANORS AND HIGH CRIMES • The Election of 1988 • crime and scandal seemed to dominate the end of the twentieth century in America • perhaps this was because problems that had dominated the nation’s attention receded • George Bush, Reagan’s vice-president, won his party’s nomination

Democratic field shrank from its original field of seven and became a contest between Michael S. Dukakis of Massachusetts and Jesse Jackson • Dukakis stressed his record as an efficient manager and defeated Jackson • Dukakis ran a lifeless campaign, and Bush damaged himself with the selection of Dan Quayle of Indiana as his running mate • Bush’s campaign attacked Dukakis for being soft on crime • he carried the election with 54 percent of the popular vote and tallied 426 electoral votes to Dukakis’s 112

Crime and Punishment • since World War II, violent crime had been a preoccupation of the media • throughout American history, violence has been caused predominantly by young males and most commonly where either there were few marriagable women or where women were so plentiful that there was incentive to marry • the ubiquity of firearms has increased the lethality of violence in America • although the rate of homicide has remained fairly constant, politicians have exploited the issue since the late 1960s

Nixon’s constituency, the “forgotten majority,” mobilized in response to fear of crime • over the next 2 decades they elected judges and legislators who promised to get tough on crime • after having fallen into disuse for several years, the death penalty became increasingly common • mandatory sentencing made it more difficult for prisoners to obtain parole • as more convicts served longer sentences, the prison population increased; maintaining order in penal institutions became more difficult

“Crack” and Urban Gangs • during the 1980s, several factors intensified the problem of violent crime, especially in the inner cities • the availability of crack cocaine, a relatively inexpensive and intensely powerful drug, contributed to crime • the lucrative crack trade led to turf wars and the spread of gangs • violence and murder increased exponentially in black inner city neighborhoods

Bush as President • Bush announced his intention to “make kinder the face of the nation and gentler the face of the world” • he displayed a more traditional command of the workings of government than had his predecessor • he appeased conservatives by opposing abortion and gun control as well as by his support for a constitutional amendment prohibiting the desecration of the flag • his standing in the polls soared

The Collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe • abroad, in an epic turn of events, Gorbachev’s reforms in the Soviet Union led to demands for liberalization by the people of Eastern Europe • when Gorbachev announced that he would not use force to keep communist governments in power in these nations, the people of Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, Romania, and East Germany ousted their communist governments and moved toward more democratic forms of government

Soviet-style communism had been discredited, and the Warsaw Pact no longer posed a threat • the Berlin Wall crumbled, and Germany began the process of reunification • Bush and Gorbachev signed major arms control agreements • in December 1989, the United States invaded Panama and forcibly brought its dictator, Manuel Noriega, to America to stand trial on drug conspiracy charges

economic conditions in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union continued to deteriorate • civil war broke out in Yugoslavia, as Croatia and Slovenia sought independence from the Serbian-dominated central government • throughout the Soviet Union, nationalist and anticommunist groups demanded greater control of their affairs • various republics demanded independence. Gorbachev opposed the breakup of the Soviet Union and proposed a treaty of union that would have granted greater local autonomy

before the treaty could be ratified, hard-line communists attempted a coup • Boris Yeltsin, the anticommunist president of the Russian Republic, defied the rebels and rallied opposition to the coup, which collapsed • in its aftermath, the Communist party was disbanded and the Soviet Union was replaced by a loose federation of independent states • Yeltsin led Russia, the most important of these republics

The War in the Persian Gulf • President Saddam Hussein of Iraq invaded the oil-rich sheikdom of Kuwait in August 1990 • Saddam hoped to gain control of Kuwait’s oil and thereby increase his control to 25 percent of the world’s total supply • he also massed his forces along the border of Saudi Arabia • the United State Great Britain, France, Italy, Egypt, and Syria moved troops to bases in Saudi Arabia

in November, the United Nations authorized the use of force to expel Iraq from Kuwait if it did not withdraw by January 15, 1991 • Saddam refused to withdraw • on January 17, American forces unleashed an enormous air attack, which wreaked great devastation • on February 24, allied forces struck with overwhelming force and retook Kuwait • Bush recorded highest approval ratings ever

in spite of expectations to the contrary and uprisings by the Kurds in northern Iraq and Shiite Moslems in the south, Saddam held on to power • he refused to honor terms of the peace agreement • critics argued that Bush should not have ended hostilities until Saddam’s regime had been crushed

The Deficit Worsens • Bush’s campaign pledge of “no new taxes” and his proposals to cut capital gains taxes ran up against the mounting deficit • end of Cold War did not bring a peace dividend • the Persian Gulf War and the invasion of Panama cost a lot • in addition, Congress resisted cutting military bases or funding for defense contractors

reducing popular but expensive entitlement programs such as Medicare and Social Security proved virtually impossible • aid to the newly liberated countries of Eastern Europe also contributed to the burden on the federal treasury

Looting the Savings and Loans • another drag on the federal treasury was the collapse of hundreds of federally insured savings and loan institutions • these institutions provided home mortgages in communities all over the country • when interest rates hit double digits, figures far above the return on existing long-term mortgages, the S&Ls lost money • Congress then allowed the S&Ls to enter the more lucrative but riskier business of commercial loans and investments

seeking to earn high yields, many S&LS invested in risky junk bonds or real estate • when the junk bond market collapsed and the real estate market stalled, hundreds of S&Ls went under • because their deposits were insured by the federal government, the failures cost the taxpayers billions of dollars

Whitewater and the Clintons • in 1977 the attorney general of Arkansas, Bill Clinton, and his wife, Hillary Rodham, joined with James and Susan McDougal to borrow money to develop vacation homes on land in the Ozarks • the proposed development, named Whitewater, failed • McDougal covered the losses with funds from a savings and loan company he owned

in 1984, McDougal’s bank slid toward bankruptcy; federal prosecutors threatened to close it and prosecute McDougal for fraud • McDougal hired the Rose law firm to defend him • Hillary Rodham, an associate of the firm, sought and received permission from Arkansas banking authorities to forestall proceedings against McDougal • in the meantime, her husband had become governor of Arkansas

McDougal’s bank helped pay off a $50,000 debt from Clinton’s campaign • in 1989, McDougal’s bank collapsed and cost the federal government $60 million to reimburse depositors • in 1992, federal investigators claimed that the Clintons had been “potential beneficiaries” of illegal activities by McDougal and his bank • Clinton was by then running for the Democratic nomination • however, the financial dealings were complicated, and voters seemed unable or unwilling to follow the story

then, Whitewater was shoved into the background when a national tabloid reported that Clinton had for years engaged in an extramarital affair with Gennifer Flowers, who confirmed the story several days later • Clinton appeared on the CBS program, 60 Minutes, denied the story, and asked for forgiveness • the disingenuous appeal worked • Clinton won the nomination and improved his chances by picking Senator Albert Gore as a running mate

The Election of 1992 • Patrick Buchanan, an outspoken conservative, challenged Bush for the Republican nomination • Ross Perot, a billionaire from Texas, charged that both parties had lost touch with the people and announced his independent candidacy • when his proposals came under detailed criticism, however, Perot withdrew his candidacy

Bush easily won the Republican nomination, but Buchanan and Perot had inflicted serious damage on Bush and the Republican party • Clinton’s campaign attacked Bush’s handling of the economy • with Clinton well ahead in the polls, Perot reentered the race • Clinton won a plurality of popular votes cast and a commanding victory in the electoral college

A New Start: Clinton • Clinton set out to reverse many of the policies of the Reagan-Bush era, but when opposition developed, he tended to back down • this led some critics to conclude that Clinton was weak and indecisive • Clinton did reverse policies of the Bush administration when he signed a revived family leave bill into law and authorized the use of fetal tissue for research

although the Supreme Court showed no inclination to overturn Roe v. Wade, Clinton solidified the pro-choice majority when he appointed Ruth Bader Ginsburg to replace Byron White • during the campaign, Clinton had promised to deal with health care and the budget deficit • Clinton had also promised not to raise taxes paid by the middle class • moreover, by seeking to increase government spending on aid to the poor and on measures designed to stimulate the economy, Clinton made it still more difficult to reduce the deficit

even some Democrats balked at Clinton’s budget, and the president had to accept major changes • Clinton appointed a committee, headed by his wife, to reform the health care system • the committee’s proposals seemed even more complicated and more costly than the existing system, and the plan failed to generate support from the medical profession, the insurance industry, and many ordinary people • the plan never came to a vote in Congress

Emergence of the Republican Majority • in spite of Clinton’s ability to brush it aside during the campaign, the Whitewater scandal began to gnaw at his presidency • he compounded matters by appointing cronies from the Rose law firm (who also had some connection to Whitewater) to high positions in his administration • apparent suicide of one of them, Vince Foster, and apparent removal of documents from Foster’s office by First Lady eventually forced the attorney General, Janet Reno, to appoint Kenneth W. Starr as a special prosecutor

Clinton’s troubles gave the Republicans hope for the congressional elections of 1994 • led by Newt Gingrich of Georgia, Republicans offered an ambitious legislative program that promised to cut the federal debt, reduce income taxes, turn many functions of the federal government over to the states, and eliminate environmental regulations • Republicans won control of both houses of Congress

led by Speaker Newt Gingrich, the new Republican majority in Congress passed nearly all of the provisions of their “contract with America” • Clinton vetoed the budget passed by Congress • when both sides refused to compromise, the government ran out of money and shut down all but essential services

The Election of 1996 • the public blamed Congress for the shutdowns, and the President’s standing in the polls rose • Clinton also benefited from the economic upturn that began in 1992 • although both Clinton and the Republican Congress tried to claim credit for the strong economy, the recovery began before either held power • most economists credit corporate restructuring of the 1980s for the economic revival

Clinton faced no opposition for renomination in 1996 • the Republicans nominated Robert Dole of Kansas, the majority leader in the Senate • Dole failed to capture the imagination of voters, either with a proposal to cut taxes by 15 percent or by raising the issue of Clinton’s character • Clinton won a decisive victory, but the Republicans retained control of both houses of Congress

O. J. Simpson and “The Trial of the Century” • Nicole Brown Simpson, the white wife of O.J. Simpson (an African American and former football star for the Buffalo Bills) was found stabbed to death along with another man in 1994 • police arrested Simpson for the murders • although blood from the victims was found in his car and on his clothing, Simpson’s lawyers focused attention on a police detective who had previously made racist remarks

after deliberating for only four hours, the jury acquitted Simpson • the families of the victims sued Simpson for wrongful death and prevailed • while 85% of blacks agreed with the not guilty verdict in the criminal case, only 34% of whites did • the case highlighted a cultural divide between whites and blacks

A Racial Divide • many believed that the cultural chasm between whites and blacks was widening • some worried that educated Americans of both races had given up on integration • Louis Farrakhan’s “Million Man March” excluded whites • inequality of income persisted, and the gap between blacks and whites in educational performance widened • affirmative action programs fell out of favor

although older forms of racism, enforced by law and custom, had become illegal or socially unacceptable, Americans appeared to be moving toward “a kind of voluntary apartheid” • at the same time, whites were three times more likely to live near a black neighbor in 1994 than in 1964, and a greater percentage of both races approved of marriages between blacks and whites

Violence and Popular Culture • during the 1980s, depiction of violence in television, movies, books, and popular music became bloodier and more intense • rock videos on MTV featured violence and sexually suggestive material • a new musical expression called rap emerged from the ghetto • the lyrics of rap expressed rage, defiance, and misogyny

Clinton Impeached • Clinton responded to allegations of womanizing by denying them • he was required to testify in a lawsuit brought by Paula Corbin Jones alleging that Clinton made improper sexual advances to her • in an attempt to support their case, Jones’s lawyers subpoenaed a former White House intern, Monica Lewinsky • both Clinton and Lewinsky denied that they had had an affair

Clinton told a news conference: “I did not have sexual relations with that woman, Miss Lewinsky” • however, Lewinsky had confided in Linda Tripp, who had recorded their conversations • Tripp turned the tapes over to the special prosecutor, Kenneth Starr • Clinton and Lewinsky appeared to have lied under oath • under the threat of an indictment for perjury, Lewinsky repudiated her earlier testimony

when Starr called him to testify before a grand jury, Clinton admitted to “inappropriate intimate contact” but responded with legalistic obfuscation • Newt Gingrich decided to make Clinton’s behavior the focus of the fall elections of 1998 • Republicans lost seats, however, and Gingrich resigned as Speaker • Starr submitted a report which concluded that Clinton’s behavior warranted that the House of Representatives consider impeachment

on the eve of the impeachment vote, Clinton ordered a massive air strike against Iraq in response to that country’s failure to allow United Nations inspectors access to suspected chemical and biologiacal weapons sites • the House impeached Clinton, but the Senate failed to muster the necessary two-thirds vote necessary to convict and remove the president • Clinton remained in office

Clinton’s Legacy • remarkable period of prosperity • globalization of economy • Clinton’s mixed results in foreign policy

The Economic Boom and the Internet • a revolutionary form of communication developed by the U.S. military and academic institutions • The New Alphabet Soup: URL, HTML, HTTP, WWW • new millionaires

The 2000 Election: Bush (Jr.) Wins By One Vote • the Gore paradox: campaigning on his vice-presidential record, but not on the president’s • Republican primary: McCain challenges Bush • midnight election drama: television networks predicted a Gore victory, then announced Bush had won. • Ballotts, chads, and the Supreme Court • Bush loses popular vote, wins presidency

Terrorism Intensifies • terrorism became an increasing concern for Americans in the 1980s and 1990s • a series of attacks on American individuals and institutions abroad coupled with bomb attacks on the World Trade Center in 1993 and the federal building in Oklahoma City in 1995 left Americans feeling less secure than they had once been

Attack on the World Trade Center • on September 11, 2001terrorists orchestrated the most devastating attack on the United States since Pearl Harbor. • two hijacked planes slammed into each of the two World Trade Center towers, killing thousands. • A third hijacked plane attacked the Pentagon; a fourth plane falls in a Pennsylvania field after passengers overtook hijackers • anthrax spores kill six more people

America Fights Back • American troops landed in Afghanistan and overthrew Taliban regime in a matter of weeks. • constant threat of future attack

The Imponderable Future • September 11, 2001 changed everything, especially the future • Historians can explain how and why things happened. They can understand the forces that produced the present. However, historians have no ability to predict the future.

MISDEMEANORS AND HIGH CRIMES