Chapter 7: Cognition, Language, and Intelligence: How Do We Think?

1. Chapter 7:Cognition, Language, and Intelligence:How Do We Think?

2. Thinking: How We Use What We Know • Cognition – way in which we store and use information • Thinking – use of knowledge to accomplish goal • Knowledge – information stored in LTM • Mental representation – bits of memory that represent objects, events, people • Sensory • Meaning

3. Visual Images: How Good Is the Mental Picture? • Image-scanning experiments • Suggest that visual images may have the same properties as the actual stimulus • North American map demonstration • Suggests that an approximate visual image plus some general knowledge is stored • Mental representation relies on both visual images and verbal knowledge

5. Concepts: How We Organize What We Know • Store mental representations of related objects in same mental category • Concepts – mental categories containing related bits of knowledge • Organized around meaning of information • Stored in verbal or propositional form • Used to perceive, think about, and deal with world

6. Organizing Concepts into Categories • Tend to organize into hierarchical categories • Superordinate category • Most general level (fruit) • Basic level category • Used to most often think about world (orange) • First level acquired by children • Subordinate category • Less general, more specific (naval oranges)

7. Problem Solving: Where Does Our Thinking Get Us? • Some problems have obvious solutions, others do not • General problem solving has six stages • Identify problem • Represent problem • Plan a solution • Execute plan • Evaluate plan • Evaluate solution

8. Language: Communication, Thought, and Culture • Humans have well-developed, syntactical verbal system to represent the world • Much of knowledge represented in memory as words

9. How Humans Acquire Language • Innate view • Born with a language acquisition device or biological make-up that gives innate knowledge of language syntax • Nurture view • Language is a means for solving the problem of needing to communicate • Both play a role—Nature vs. Nurture

10. Cooing and Babbling: Baby Steps to Learning One or More Languages • Newborn to 1 month – can categorize vowel sounds • 2 months – cooing • Vowel sounds like “ooo” and “ah” • 4 months – babbling • Consonant sounds like “ka ka ka” • 7 months – babbles specific to native language (phonemes) • 1 year – communication with others

11. Cooing and Babbling: Baby Steps to Learning One or More Languages (cont.) • In bilingual household children acquire both languages at high level of proficiency • Exposure in elementary school can lead to near-native proficiency; afterward, very difficult

12. From “Mama” and “Dada” to Full Conversations • First words are objects • Uttering one word sentences (e.g. “Milk!”) • Overextension – one word symbolizes all similar instances • Telegraphic speech – two-word sentences convey meaning • Followed by rapid acquisition • By age 6, large vocabulary and mastery of grammar and pragmatics

13. Language and the Development of Culture • Lev Vygostsky – Sociocultural Theory • influence of language in the development of culture • Older and knowledgeable society members pass on culture by engaging in conversations • Pass on values, beliefs, customs • Children store these dialogues and later use this knowledge to guide behavior

14. Are Humans the Only Animals to Use Language? • Some researchers suggest animals have language abilities • Consider difference between language and communication • Language is a system of communication with set vocabulary and grammar • Communication can be unstructured

16. Defining and Measuring Intelligence • What is intelligence? • Abilities allowing a person to adapt to her or his environment and behave in a goal-directed way • Precise definition is elusive • Measurement is challenging

17. Alfred Binet: Measuring Intelligence by Measuring Cognitive Abilities • Along with Theodore Simon, appointed to develop measure of intelligence for French school children, place in special education programs • Intelligence is capacity to find and maintain purpose, adapt and evaluate strategy to reach purpose and adjust, if necessary • Mental age – how child’s abilities compared to average child of same age

18. Lewis Terman: The Intelligence Quotient and the Stanford-Binet • American revision of Binet and Simon’s work • Introduced the intelligence quotient/IQ • IQ = (MA/CA) X 100 • MA = Mental Age • CA = Chronological Age • Average IQ would be 100 where MA = CA

19. David Wechsler’s Intelligence Scales • Developed test in response to shortcomings of Stanford-Binet • One number cannot express “intelligence” • Objected to use of mental age for adults • Test yields scores on subscales measuring different mental abilities • Average ranges from 85 – 115

21. Wechsler Intelligence Tests • Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (PDPSI) • 2 1/2 - 7 years • Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children – Third Edition (WISC-III) • 6 -16 • Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-III) • over 15

22. Testing the Test: What Makes a Good Intelligence Test? • Reliability • Test yields consistent measurements for the same individual over time • Validity • Test measures what it is designed to measure • Predictive validity • Test predicts some future behavior • Cultural bias • Degree to which test is invalid for cultural minority members

23. The Nature of Intelligence: The Search Continues • E.G. Boring, “intelligence is what the tests test” • Historically spent more time measuring than defining intelligence • Does timing alter a person’s performance?

24. Intelligence as a Single Factor • Charles Spearman • One general level of intelligence that underlies separate mental abilities • Generalized intelligence or “g” • Determines how well individual functioned on cognitive tasks

25. Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences • Humans possess many different intelligences • Intelligence is a biopsychological potential to process information that can be activated in cultural setting to solve problems or create products that are of cultural value • Identified 9 different intelligences • Intelligence profile

26. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences • Linguistic • Spatial • Logical-Mathematical • Musical • Bodily-Kinesthetic • Interpersonal • Intrapersonal • Naturalistic • Existential

27. Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence • Successful intelligence helps us function in our world • Analytical: ability to use logic to reason through problems • Practical: ability to adapt to environment; common sense • Creative: ability to use knowledge of world in novel situations

28. Daniel Goleman’s Theory of Emotional Intelligence • Intelligence alone does not guarantee success; must factor in emotional intelligence • Emotionally intelligent person is confident self-starter, ethical and adaptable – sets goals, works toward them without letting obstacles stop them • Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test

29. Nature Versus Nurture • Genes or environment? • Natural selection • Today’s question is, “Is the trait mostly genetic or mostly environmental?” • Best way to study contributions of genes and environment

30. Gender and Intellectual Abilities: Are We Really All That Different? • Many stereotypes about differences in female and male intellectual abilities • These affect self- and other-perception and beliefs about abilities • Many researchers conclude that men and women do not differ in “g” • Differences found tend to be small and vary across cultures