Effective and Cost-Beneficial Ergonomics: Some Documented Lessons Learned Hal W. Hendrick, Ph.D., CPE,

1. Effective and Cost-Beneficial Ergonomics: Some Documented “Lessons Learned” Hal W. Hendrick, Ph.D., CPE, DABFE

2. Contact information for Me For copies of my slides:  hhendrick@aol.com

3. 1. Ergonomics is not simply a lay person’s  “common sense”; professional expertise  is required. Ergonomics programs: Invariably, the more than 30 poor ones that I have examined have not been staffed by professional ergonomists. Ergonomic design. “Common sense” design that does not include input and approval by a professional ergonomist often induces human error. Sometimes just frustrating and a nuisance, But sometimes has disastrous results!

4. 1. Ergonomics is not simply a lay person’s “common sense”; professional expertise  is required. A Disastrous “common sense” example experienced by myself Development of a new aircraft altimeter Replaced old 3-pointer altimeter in F-86D fighter aircraft with a 2-pointer with direct odometer type readout to replace the 3rd pointer. Indication Old Altimeter New Altimeter 10,000 ft . Short pointer Direct readout 1,000 ft. Medium pointer Medium pointer 100 ft. Long pointer Long pointer

5. 2. Good ergonomics projects typically give a direct  cost benefit of from 1 to 2, to 1 to 10+, with a  typical pay-back period of 6 to 24 months. Good ergonomics can be defined as appropriately applied ergonomics technology that also is cost effective. In part, lesson 2 above is based on my review of 24 documented widely differing good ergonomics projects (see Hendrick, 1997. Good ergonomics is good economics. Available for downloading in pdf format at no cost at http://hfes.org). Many other examples have been reported to me by ergonomists around the world.

6. 3. Life cycle ergonomics cost-benefit savings can be 1-50, or greater. Personal example: C141 Aircraft * Documented initial fleet cost savings of $5 million from a $500,000 ergonomics program – a one to ten direct cost-benefit ratio. Conservatively, the true cost-benefit savings over the 35+ year life cycle of the aircraft fleet has been greater than 1 to 50. *Hendrick, H. W. (1997). Good ergonomics is good economics. Santa Monica, CA: Human Factors and Ergonomics Society.

7. 4. Effective ergonomics programs on large system development projects take only  1% of the engineering design budget E. Jones & H. Hendrick (1980), based on a study of 10 major system development Projects having an effective professional ergonomics program. Auburn Engineers study (D. Alexander, 1999).

8.  5. The earlier ergonomics is applied in design,  the cheaper the cost and greater the benefit Table 1. The costs of using ergonomics in design.* ___________________________________________________ Stage of Development Portion of Engineering Budget ___________________________________________________ Early Design 1 % to 2.0% Blueprint 1% to 3.0% Construction 2% to 6.5% Commissioning 4% to 10.5% Normal Operations 5% to 12+ % _____________________________________________________ *Auburn Engineers, Inc. Reported by Dave Alexander at the April 2002 DoD Ergonomics Conference.

9.  5. The earlier ergonomics is applied in design,  the cheaper the cost and greater the benefit  (continued). Software design. Conservatively, the cost of catching and solving ergonomic usability design problems early in the software design process costs about 1/4th of what the same changes made late would cost.* *See Mantei, M. M., and Teorey, T. J. (1988). Cost/benefit analysis for incorporating human factors in the software life cycle. Communications of the ACM, 31(4). 428-439.

10. 6. The language of business is money! Managers have to justify any expenditure in terms of the cost- benefit ratio: How the project will affect the bottom line. Must express ergonomic project proposals in financial terms.

11. 7. Costs and benefits of ergonomics  projects must be measured. Costs Personnel, training, equipment, materials, reduced productivity, and overhead. Benefits Personnel savings: Less lost time, less training, lower skill levels required, increased output per person, fewer people required. Material savings: Reduced scrap, fewer rejects, fewer parts, less expensive or fewer materials or equipment. Reduced overhead: Resulting from direct cost savings.

12. 7. costs and benefits of ergonomics  projects must be measured. Sources of information Much of the cost and pricing information is available through either your human resources or accounting departments, including overhead percentage. Some benefits can be directly calculated. Projected benefits which cannot be directly calculated can be gained through the literature and looking at similar projects in other organizations.

13. 7. Costs and benefits of ergonomics  projects must be measured. Less Tangible Benefits Increased Employee Satisfaction and Commitment : Leads to “good citizenship” behavior. Can reduce grievances, improve productivity, and improve inter- and intra-group relations – all of which can have a positive financial impact. Improved Organizational Image: Can result in less governmental scrutiny & better community relations – all of which can have a positive financial impact. These benefits are the “icing on the cake”

14. 7. Costs and benefits of ergonomics  projects must be measured. Example: Tractor Forwarding Units, South African Forestry Industry Original Unit: Poor operator seating and visibility Human Factors is the study of the physical and mental characteristics, capabilities and limitations of human beings AND the design of tools, equipment and systems that take these human factors into account. Human Factors is primarily a science related to design--the design of systems that take certain inputs and produce desired outputs. However, we realize that humans are part of this system and so both the strengths as well as the weaknesses. Systems where humans and machine work together, which is mostly what we deal with, are called human-machine systems.Human Factors is the study of the physical and mental characteristics, capabilities and limitations of human beings AND the design of tools, equipment and systems that take these human factors into account. Human Factors is primarily a science related to design--the design of systems that take certain inputs and produce desired outputs. However, we realize that humans are part of this system and so both the strengths as well as the weaknesses. Systems where humans and machine work together, which is mostly what we deal with, are called human-machine systems.

15. 7. Costs and benefits of ergonomics  projects must be measured. Example: Tractor-Trailer Forwarding Units, South African Forestry Industry Redesigned Unit: Good operator seating and visibility Human Factors is the study of the physical and mental characteristics, capabilities and limitations of human beings AND the design of tools, equipment and systems that take these human factors into account. Human Factors is primarily a science related to design--the design of systems that take certain inputs and produce desired outputs. However, we realize that humans are part of this system and so both the strengths as well as the weaknesses. Systems where humans and machine work together, which is mostly what we deal with, are called human-machine systems.Human Factors is the study of the physical and mental characteristics, capabilities and limitations of human beings AND the design of tools, equipment and systems that take these human factors into account. Human Factors is primarily a science related to design--the design of systems that take certain inputs and produce desired outputs. However, we realize that humans are part of this system and so both the strengths as well as the weaknesses. Systems where humans and machine work together, which is mostly what we deal with, are called human-machine systems.

16. 7. Costs and benefits of ergonomics  projects must be measured. Example: Tractor-Trailer Forwarding Units, South African Forestry Industry Cost - 23 Units modified @ $300 per unit: $6,900 Benefit Reduced accident damage by $2000 per unit per year or $46,000 per year. Extraction increased by one load per day per vehicle for total increase of $19,000 per yr - Total Direct Cost-Benefit (first year alone): $58,100 or 1 to 9.4 C-B ratio. Human Factors is the study of the physical and mental characteristics, capabilities and limitations of human beings AND the design of tools, equipment and systems that take these human factors into account. Human Factors is primarily a science related to design--the design of systems that take certain inputs and produce desired outputs. However, we realize that humans are part of this system and so both the strengths as well as the weaknesses. Systems where humans and machine work together, which is mostly what we deal with, are called human-machine systems.Human Factors is the study of the physical and mental characteristics, capabilities and limitations of human beings AND the design of tools, equipment and systems that take these human factors into account. Human Factors is primarily a science related to design--the design of systems that take certain inputs and produce desired outputs. However, we realize that humans are part of this system and so both the strengths as well as the weaknesses. Systems where humans and machine work together, which is mostly what we deal with, are called human-machine systems.

17. 7. Costs and benefits of ergonomics  projects must be measured Personal Example: C-141 Aircraft

18. 7. Costs and benefits of ergonomics  projects must be measured. Personal Example: C-141 Aircraft Four Engine USAF Cargo Aircraft Converts to different configurations via installation of kits: Cargo aerial delivery Paratroop Passenger aircraft Medical air evacuation

19. 7. Costs and benefits of ergonomics  projects must be measured. Conducted macroergonomic analysis of operational work system. Results Original design: Kits had many parts that would never be removed from the aircraft. Redesigned kits to only include items that would not be left in aircraft; the rest of the components were built in.

20. 7. Costs and Benefits of Ergonomics  Projects Must be Measured. Personal Example: C-141 Aircraft Saved $2.5 million in original price. Kits smaller, lighter, easier to store and could be installed faster with fewer people. Saved storage cost and reduced personnel requirements. Built in parts were fewer and lighter in weight. Reduced actual aircraft operational weight and related fuel costs for entire fleet of over 200 aircraft over 35+ year period.

21. 7. Costs and benefits of ergonomics  projects must be measured. Personal Example: C-141 Aircraft Good example of what ergonomics can do when integrated with engineering design early in the development program.

22. 8. The trade-off diamond is a useful tool for evaluating interventions. Human-System Interface Design Training Selection Job Performance Aids Human Factors is the study of the physical and mental characteristics, capabilities and limitations of human beings AND the design of tools, equipment and systems that take these human factors into account. Human Factors is primarily a science related to design--the design of systems that take certain inputs and produce desired outputs. However, we realize that humans are part of this system and so both the strengths as well as the weaknesses. Systems where humans and machine work together, which is mostly what we deal with, are called human-machine systems.Human Factors is the study of the physical and mental characteristics, capabilities and limitations of human beings AND the design of tools, equipment and systems that take these human factors into account. Human Factors is primarily a science related to design--the design of systems that take certain inputs and produce desired outputs. However, we realize that humans are part of this system and so both the strengths as well as the weaknesses. Systems where humans and machine work together, which is mostly what we deal with, are called human-machine systems.

23. 8. The trade-off diamond is a useful tool for evaluating interventions. Managers Often overlook ergonomic design and job aids. Managers tend to overemphasize training and selection as the cure – does not eliminate poor ergonomic design! Human Factors is the study of the physical and mental characteristics, capabilities and limitations of human beings AND the design of tools, equipment and systems that take these human factors into account. Human Factors is primarily a science related to design--the design of systems that take certain inputs and produce desired outputs. However, we realize that humans are part of this system and so both the strengths as well as the weaknesses. Systems where humans and machine work together, which is mostly what we deal with, are called human-machine systems.Human Factors is the study of the physical and mental characteristics, capabilities and limitations of human beings AND the design of tools, equipment and systems that take these human factors into account. Human Factors is primarily a science related to design--the design of systems that take certain inputs and produce desired outputs. However, we realize that humans are part of this system and so both the strengths as well as the weaknesses. Systems where humans and machine work together, which is mostly what we deal with, are called human-machine systems.

24. 8. The trade-off diamond is a useful tool for evaluating interventions. Job Aid Example: IBM Displaywriter Packing Line Frequent errors in packing caused customer set-up of the product to fail. Ergonomist Dan Kolar of Info Xfer analyzed problem and developed large story board aid for each packing station. Boards detailed & illustrated specific packing steps. Human Factors is the study of the physical and mental characteristics, capabilities and limitations of human beings AND the design of tools, equipment and systems that take these human factors into account. Human Factors is primarily a science related to design--the design of systems that take certain inputs and produce desired outputs. However, we realize that humans are part of this system and so both the strengths as well as the weaknesses. Systems where humans and machine work together, which is mostly what we deal with, are called human-machine systems.Human Factors is the study of the physical and mental characteristics, capabilities and limitations of human beings AND the design of tools, equipment and systems that take these human factors into account. Human Factors is primarily a science related to design--the design of systems that take certain inputs and produce desired outputs. However, we realize that humans are part of this system and so both the strengths as well as the weaknesses. Systems where humans and machine work together, which is mostly what we deal with, are called human-machine systems.

25. 8. The trade-off diamond is a useful tool for evaluating interventions. Job aid example: IBM Displaywriter packing line storyboards Human Factors is the study of the physical and mental characteristics, capabilities and limitations of human beings AND the design of tools, equipment and systems that take these human factors into account. Human Factors is primarily a science related to design--the design of systems that take certain inputs and produce desired outputs. However, we realize that humans are part of this system and so both the strengths as well as the weaknesses. Systems where humans and machine work together, which is mostly what we deal with, are called human-machine systems.Human Factors is the study of the physical and mental characteristics, capabilities and limitations of human beings AND the design of tools, equipment and systems that take these human factors into account. Human Factors is primarily a science related to design--the design of systems that take certain inputs and produce desired outputs. However, we realize that humans are part of this system and so both the strengths as well as the weaknesses. Systems where humans and machine work together, which is mostly what we deal with, are called human-machine systems.

26. 8. The trade-off diamond is a useful tool for evaluating interventions. Job aid example: IBM Displaywriter packing line Results - Error rate dropped from 35 per 100 to less than 1 in 1,000. - Saved $2 million in first two years.

27. 9. Management awareness is critical to management commitment (which is critical for an effective ergonomics program or project). Study by Ed Jones and myself of DoD Major System Development Programs. - Evaluated major DoD system development programs over a 10-year period in terms of whether they had a good or poor ergonomics development effort. - Found those with a poor effort had major problems when they became operational. - Looked for what made the difference between those with a good effort vs. those with a poor effort.

28. 9. management awareness is critical to  management commitment (continued). Study by Ed Jones and myself of DoD Major System Development Programs. Results: - Major discriminating factor was the level of ergonomics awareness of the program director. - Aware directors appreciated value added of ergonomics -- and so allocated scarce personnel resources and funding to ergonomics. Those lacking knowledge of ergonomics did not .

29. 9. Management awareness is critical to  management commitment (continued). Study by Ed Jones and myself of DoD Major System Development Programs. Lesson Establishing rapport with key managers and raising their consciousness about ergonomics is essential to your long-term success. This often takes time and persistence! Personal example: A major hotel chain.

30. 9. Management awareness is critical to  management commitment (continued). Personal Example: A major hotel chain Initial entry: Assessing hotel managers and key staff. Established rapport with key corporate Vice Presidents (Human Resources and Labor Relations; Operations). Raised their awareness of HF/E over a two year period. Then implemented behavioral modeling training for all supervisors and a quality circle program with strong ergonomics and safety orientation.

31. 9. Management awareness is critical to  management commitment (continued). Personal example: A major hotel chain Results (after two years) - The flagship hotel’s customer comment forms’ negative comments went from 9% to 3% (note: the industry standard is a maximum of 5% for 4- and 5-star hotels). - Numerous ergonomics and safety improvements were identified by employees and implemented in the various hotels.

32. 10. Most effective ergonomics programs are an integral part of the design  process -- not an Ility. Study by Ed Jones and myself of DoD Major System Development Programs over 10 year period. Results: - Effective programs: Ergonomics was an integral part of the engineering design team. - Ineffective programs: Ergonomics was treated as an “ility”, like reliability, maintainability, etc.; only could make input after subsystem or item was already designed (i.e., band-aid changes only).

33. 11. participatory ergonomics is essential  to successful interventions! Participatory ergonomics: Involve employees at all levels to insure success. They know problems with their jobs best. They know what ergonomic alternatives will be most satisfying and acceptable to them. Get employee “buy-in” to changes. Establishes a true ergonomic safety culture – the proven way to sustain improvement gains!

34.  11. Participatory ergonomics is essential  to successful interventions!   Example: Food Service Stands Redesign: Dodger Stadium

35. 11. Participatory ergonomics is essential  to successful interventions! Example: Food Service Stands Redesign: Dodger Stadium Results - Ergonomists Andrew Imada and Gorge Stawowy redesigned two food service stands for a cost of $40,000 using participatory ergonomics. - Reduced average customer transaction time by 8 seconds.

36. 11. Participatory ergonomics is essential  to successful interventions! Example: Food Service Stand Redesign: Dodger Stadium* Results (continued) - Increased productivity was $1,200 per baseball game, resulting in payback period of 33 games. - Payback period for modifying the other 50 stands was 20 games. Imada, A. S.. and Stawowy, G. (1996). The effects of a participatory ergonomics redesign of food service stands on speed of service in a professional baseball stadium. In O. Brown, Jr. and H. W. Hendrick (Eds.), Human factors in organizational design and management-V. Amsterdam: North-Holland.

37. 12. OSHA guidelines* are the key to an effective H & S ergonomics program. - Are based on extensive research - From my evaluations of over 50 programs, when OSHA ergonomics program elements are not present, or are seriously deficient, the ergonomics & safety program invariably is not adequate. *See OSHA 3123 Ergonomics Program Management Guidelines for Meatpacking Plants

38. 12. OSHA guidelines are the key to an  effective ergonomics program. OSHA Guidelines I. Management Commitment & Employee Involvement A. Commitment by Top Management -deeds, not just words B. Written Program C. Employee Involvement D. Regular Program Reviews & Evaluation

39. 12. OSHA guidelines are the key to an  effective H & S ergonomics program. OSHA Guidelines (continued) II. OSHA Program Elements A. Worksite Analysis B. Hazard Prevention and Control Engineering Controls Work Practice Controls Personal Protective Equipment Administrative Controls

40. 12. OSHA guidelines are the key to an  effective ergonomics program. OSHA Guidelines (continued) II. OSHA Program Elements (Cont.) C. Medical Management D. Training and Education General Training Job-Specific Training Training for Supervisors Training for Management Training for Engineers & Maintenance Personnel

41. 12. OSHA guidelines are the key to an effective ergonomics program. OSHA Guidelines (Continued) Poor Examples: Some warehouse retail stores & railroads – program elements largely missing or inadequate; many customer or employee injuries. Good Example: Redwing Shoes

42. 12. OSHA guidelines are the key to ensuring  an effective H & S ergonomics program. Redwing Shoes From 1989 to 1995, workers compensation dropped by 70% for a $3.1 million savings. OSHA reportable injuries dropped from ratio of 75 per 100 employees working per year, to 19. Other Examples See GAO/HEHS 97-163. Worker Protection: Private sector ergonomics programs yield positive results. See H. Hendrick, Good ergonomics is good economics.

43.  13. Ergonomic improvements to reduce accidents  and work-related musculoskeletal disorders usually improve productivity – and visa versa. Union Pacific Palistine Car Repair Shop Had worst safety statistics of all UP’s shop operations. Joint UP-AAR project to reduce high incidence of back injuries. Adapted U. of Michigan 2-D program to identify job tasks that exceeded acceptable back compression values. Work stations and equipment redesigned or added to reduce back loading and related ergonomic problems. Trained workers on proper lifting techniques.

44. 13. Ergonomic improvements to reduce accidents  and work-related musculoskeletal D\disorders usually improve productivity – and visa versa. Example: UP Palestine Repair Facility Coupler Knuckle Storage Table

45.  13. Ergonomic improvements to reduce accidents  and work-related musculoskeletal disorders usually improve productivity – and visa versa. Union Pacific Palistine Car Repair Shop Results (annual statistics – 3 years later)* Injuries went from 33 to 12; Back injuries from 13 to 0; lost days from 579 to 0; restricted days from 194 to 40, and Cars repaired went from 1,564 to 2,900 -- an increase of $3.96 billion; cost-benefit ratio was 1 to 10. *American Association of Railroads (1989). Research pays off: Preventing back injuries, AAR program adopted at Union Pacific. TR News, 140, pp. 16-17.

46. Example: AT&T Global Phase 1. Micro-ergonomic changes to work stations to eliminate awkward postures, excessive force, etc. Result. Large reduction in WMSD’s & related costs one year later. Gained management’s confidence. 14. Pick the low-hanging fruit first -  then expand.

47. Example: AT&T Global* Phase 2. Macroergonomic changes to work system: Moved from assembly line process to one where workers built entire computer cabinet. Results. Reduction of worker’s compensation costs from $400,000 per yr to $12,000 4 years later; lost workdays due to injury dropped from 298 in 1990 to none in 1993 and 1994. *Center for Workplace Health Information (1995a). An ergonomics honor roll: Case studies of results-oriented programs, AT&T Global. CTD News Special Report: Best Ergonomic Practices, pp. 4-6. 14. Pick the low-hanging fruit first -  then expand.

48. 15. Look for the Simple Ergonomic  Solution First. Example: Poultry deboning operation, poultry packaging plant. High incidence of carpal tunnel syndrome, tendonitis, and tenosynovitis $100,000 workers compensation Costs per year.

49. 17. Look for the simple ergonomic  solution first. Example: Poultry deboning knife, poultry packaging plant. Solution: Ergonomist Ian Chong Introduced new pistol grip Knife that was commercially available.

50. 15. Look for the simple ergonomic  solution first. Example: Poultry De-Boning Operation.* Results Saved $500,000 in workman’s compensation over 5 years. Line speeds increased from 2% to 6%. Profits further increased because of more efficient de-boning * Ian Chong, personal communication and supporting materials, 1996.

51. 16. User centered design, rather than technology  centered design, is the sure way to success. First determine what tasks operator can do best and assign them to the operator. Then design and/or select equipment, machines, etc. to assist operator and do what is “left over”. Result will be better job design, improved productivity, and fewer design induced human errors.

52. 16. User centered design, rather than technology  centered design, is the sure way to success. Example: Replacement of Forklift Truck Lines.* Forklift manufacturer, Raymond Corporation, had gone from 60% to 30% market share. Alan Hedge’s HF lab at Cornell and Pelican Design in NYC participated with Raymond in designing two new forklift trucks using HFE principles and a user centered design approach. *Alan Hedge, Personal Communication and supporting materials, 1996.

53. 16. User centered design, rather than technology  centered design, is the sure way to success. Example: Fork Lift Truck Redesign Results: Raymond regained its market share; stock value rose from $6 per share to $21 per share in three years.

54. 17. Employee ergonomics training is important for safety, health, and productivity. Example: Ergonomics team training. Ergonomist Bill Brough of Washington Ergonomics conducted a one-day seminar for cross-disciplinary teams of engineers, human resource management personnel, and safety/ergonomics committee members from seven companies insured by Tokyo Marine and Fire Insurance Company. Six of the companies used the seminar materials and data to implement a participatory ergonomics program; one did not.

55. 17. Employee ergonomics training is important for safety, health, and productivity. Example: Ergonomics team training. Results* For the six companies that did implement their training, reported strain-type injuries dropped from 131 in the six months prior to the training to 42 in the six-month period ending 18 months later for a net savings of $1,348,748. For the company that did not implement, the injury rate actually increased during the same 18-month period. *Bill Brough, personal communication and supporting documentation, 1995.

56. 17. Employee ergonomics training is important for safety, health, and productivity. Personal Example: Small Rattan Furniture Factory. Manager and workers in a small factory I built in the Philippines were from a rural background. Consequently, they had little conception of basic safety and ergonomics. Minor injury rate for 8 workers for first six months was one per week, and one significant lost time injury every two months. I conducted a two-day basic ergonomics and safety training program for the manager and the senior worker. As part of the training, we did a hazard analysis of the factory. The manager and senior worker then taught the other workers (who spoke poor English) in their primary language.

57. 17. Employee ergonomics training is important for safety, health, and productivity. Personal Example: Small Rattan Furniture Factory. Results Minor injuries dropped from 1 per week to 1 per month. Major (lost time) injuries dropped from a rate of 6 per year to zero (for the two years that I continued to observe). The ergonomics knowledge gained was effectively used by the manager and workers to both improve the workplace and refine some of the furniture designs.

58. 18. Collaboration invariably works better than confrontation. Well documented in the social psychology literature. It has been my observation and personal experience (e.g. design of the Air Force C-141, mentioned earlier) that when the ergonomist respects the ownership and design expertise of the design engineer for his/her part of the project, and is collaboratively supportive of that engineer, that engineer is likely to be far more open to, and accepting of, the ergronomist’s input. Further, once the ergonomist makes a recognized improvement to an engineer’s design (i.e., establishes credibility) the ergonomist will have more work requests from the design engineers than s/he can handle.

59. 19. Ergonomists can be effective system  integrators on system development projects. Our involvement across subsystems and components enable us to see possibilities and problems that others do not. Examples Possibilities: C-141 Medical Evacuation Configuration Problems: B-70 Incompatible Hydraulic Systems

60. 20. Macroergonomics: The key to dramatic  work system improvements. Macroergonomic interventions can dramatically improve health, safety, and productivity by 50% - 90% or more. Goal: Achieve a fully harmonized work system 1. Design a work system’s structure and processes to be compatible with the key characteristics of its - Personnel subsystem - Technological Subsystem - External Environment 2. Design jobs, human-machine, human-software, and human-environment interfaces to fully harmonize with the over-all work system design

61. 20. Macroergonomics: The key to dramatic  work system improvements. Example: A large U.S. Petroleum Distribution Company

62. 20. Macroergonomics: the key to dramatic  work system improvements. Example: A large U.S. Petroleum Distribution Company * Results Reductions After Intervention 2 years 9 Years Motor Vehicle Accidents 51% 63% Industrial Accidents 54% 70% Lost Workdays 94% 97% $ 60,000 savings per year in petroleum delivery costs. * Imada, A. S. (2003). A macroergonomic approach to reducing work-related injuries. In H. W. Hendrick & B. M. Kleiner (Eds), Macroergonomics: Theory, Methods, and Applications. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum

63. 21. Ride the coattails of the latest management fad. One way to sell an ergonomics project is to integrate it with what ever is the hot management program or fad at the time. Example: Implementing TQM at LL Bean* Rooney, Morency, and Herrick integrated a macroergonomic intervention with the start of a TQM program at L. L. Bean *Rooney, E. F., Morency, R. R., and Herrick, D. R. (1993). Macroergonomics and total quality management at L. L. Bean: A case study. In R. Neilsen and K Jorgensen (Eds.), Advances in Industrial Ergonomics and Safety V (pp. 493-498). London: Taylor & Francis.

64. 21. Ride the coattails of the latest management fad. Example: Implementing TQM at LL Bean via Macroergonomics.  Results: 70% reduction in lost time accidents and injuries achieved in a two year period in both the production and distribution divisions. Other benefits, such as greater employee satisfaction, also realized.

65. 22. Conclusion: Good Ergonomics is Good Economics!