The Age of Nation-States

1. Chapter 14 (#509-540) The Age of Nation-States The Western Heritage Since 1300, AP Edition

3. Learning Objectives • Why was the Crimean war fought? • How did the Ottoman Empire attempt to reform itself? • How did Italy achieve unification? • How did Bismarck use war as a tool for achieving German unification? • What events led to the establishment of a Third Republic in France? • Why was nationalism such a threat to the Habsburg Empire? • Why did reform in Russia fail to produce political stability? • What forces led to the expansion of democracy in Great Britain?

4. Chapter Outline: I. The Crimean War II. Reforms in the Ottoman Empire III. German unification IV. France: from liberal empire to the Third Republic V. The Habsburg Empire VI. Russia: Emancipation and revolutionary stirrings VII. Great Britain: Toward democracy VIII. In perspective

5. Vocabulary 1. Home rule (538)

7. I. The Crimean War A. Peace Settlement & Long-Term Results 1. Crimean War (1853-1856) 2. Based on Russian goals of expansion into Ottoman Empire territory B. Russians(Russian Orthodox Church) and Roman Catholic Church had been given permission by Muslims to preserve traditional Christian landmarks in Ottoman Empire and Palestine 1. Russians used pretext to take over two provinces, Ottoman Empire declared war on Russia 2. Based on previous alliances, France & Britain declared war on Russia assisting Ottoman Empire 3. Austria & Prussia remained neutral 4. Crimean war first to be covered by war correspondents, photographers 5. War ended September 1855 as fighting bogged down along coast of Black Sea

8. I. The Crimean War

9. II. Reforms in the Ottoman Empire 1. Reformation in the Ottoman Empire a. Hatt-i-Sharif of Gulhane decreed reorganizing- 1. govt. administration 2. military 3. economy 4. taxation 5. social reforms b. era known as Tazimat which sought to eliminate corruption c. Religious reform included declaring people as Ottomans rather than being part of religious group, especially Christians who were a minority c. political conflict between Muslim politicians, ulema, merchants, and military limited true political/economic reforms

10. II. Reforms in the Ottoman Empire Pasha Halim Receiving Archduke Maximilian of Austria As this painting suggests, Ottoman leaders became well versed in European languages and culture. They also mastered the game of power politics, playing one European state off against another and securing the Ottoman Empire’s survival. The black servants on the right may be slaves from Sudan.

11. III. German Unification This map shows how Prussia expanded and a new German empire was created through two wars, the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 and the Franco- Prussian War of 1870–1871. It deserves careful study because it highlights how central Europe was remade and the power of Prussia-Germany was greatly increased.•1 What were the results of the Austro-Prussian War? Specifically, how did Prussia treat its neighbors in the north, such as Hanover and Saxony?•2 What losses did Austria experience in 1866?•3 What were the results of the Franco-Prussian War for France and for the predominately Catholic states of southern Germany, such as Bavaria and Württemberg?

12. III. German Unification A. German state in political stalemate 1. Zolverein locked in power struggle between Austria & Prussia 2. William I of Prussia wanted to increase size of army though opposed by Parliament, 1862 B. Bismarck & Austro-Prussian war, 1866: 1. Bismarck and Prussian Junker class goal to unify power 2. Bismarck became Prime Minister of Prussia, 1862 3. opposed to middle class power, pushed “blood & iron” policy as way to solve problems of Germany

13. III. German Unification 4. Started war with Denmark; took Schleswig- Holstein, with help from Austria 5. neutralized Russia & France 6. German Confederation dissolved; in its place new “North German Confederation”, led by Prussia formed 7. Austria withdrew from German affairs F. Taming of the Prussian Parliament: 1. Bismarck felt middle class preferred national unity to liberal institutions 2. created new constitution 3. lower house of Parliament formed, allowed universal male suffrage 4. upper house of Parliament could still veto lower house

14. III. German Unification G. Franco-Prussian War (1870-71): 1. Bismarck used a war with France to unify Germany 2. Louis Napoleon, leader, captured on the battlefield by Prussian forces, forced to accept harsh peace terms 3. William I declared Emperor of Germany, crowned at Palace of Versailles, France

15. IV. Italian Unification • Italy to 1850: battleground for great powers 1. prior to 1850, Italy divided between Austria and the Pope 2. Between 1815-1848, nationalist movement began to take hold in Italy 3. Region of Sardinia leader of nationalist movement 4. Pope Pius IX opposed to nationalism • Cavour and Garibaldi in Italy 1. Count Camille Cavour, foreign minister of Sardinia, led a liberal/ economically sound state 2. sought to unify northern Italy under Sardinian rule The Unification of Italy, 1859–1870

16. IV. Italian Unification a. founded his patriotic movement for young men and called it Giovine Italia (Young Italy). It was designed as a national association for liberating the separate Italian states from foreign rule and fusing them into a free and independent unitary republic. b. methods were education and insurrection, and it had a moral basis derived from Mazzini’s own belief in God (though he was not a Christian) and in permanent laws of progress, duty, and sacrifice. c. first Italian democratic movement embracing all classes, for Mazzini believed that only a popular initiative could free Italy. “Neither pope nor king,” he declared. “Only God and the people will open the way of the future to us.” Giuseppe Mazzini (1805­1872)

17. IV. Italian Unification C. Unification: 1. Cavour would use France to engineer a war with Austria to remove Austrian rule in the Italian peninsula 2. 1860, Sardinia and northern Italy unified 3. Garibaldi liberated southern Italy, Sicily, led army of “Red Shirts” 4. With exception of Vatican, Venice, Italy unified by 1870 5. Garibaldi walked away from revolution 6. Garibaldi took control of unification 7. educational, social reforms, some Catholic Property confiscated by the new united Italian state Giuseppe Garibaldi Count Camillo Cavour

18. IV. France: From Liberal Empire to the Third Republic • Napoleon III, an authoritarian ruler, used the nationalistic movement as a basis for his political platform • 2nd Republic & Louis Napoleon 1. election due to middle class & peasant fear with class politics 2. prolific writer, especially in the press, wrote political opinion pieces 3. felt state owed population jobs, stimulate economy 4. once elected, attempted to change laws to extend time in office-unsuccessful, so… 5. staged coup d’etat in 1851, dismissed Assembly, with approval of voters

19. IV. France: From Liberal Empire to the Third Republic Paris in the Second Empire The flash and glitter of unprecedented prosperity in the Second Empire come alive in this vibrant contemporary painting. Writers and intellectuals chat with elegant women and trade witticisms with financiers and government officials at the Café Tortoni, a favorite rendezvous for fashionable society. Horse-drawn omnibuses with open top decks mingle with cabs and private carriages on the broad new boulevard.

20. IV. France: From Liberal Empire to the Third Republic C. Napoleon III improved economy of France 1. his govt., encouraged new investment banks, massive railroad construction 2. govt., sponsored public works, including various reclamation projects throughout Paris 3. granted workers right to unionize, strike 4. politically, his govt., restricted Assembly, and tied all reform to support of his candidates 5. 1860’s, allowed Assembly greater power, gave opposition more freedoms

21. V. The Habsburg Empire • While rest of Europe raced towards nationalism & • liberalism, Austria remained an absolute monarchy with • the Habsburg family in charge • a. Austrian revolts of 1848-1849 only renewed determination of Habsburg to maintain power • b. Francis Joseph (1848-1916), worked to abolish internal tariffs • c. divided Hungary into military districts in 1848 • d. Roman Catholic Church given control of national education e. Relations between Russia and Austria waned as Austria did not assist Russia during Crimean war f. 1860, October diploma issued by F. Joseph, creation of federation among states, failed g. 1861 February Patent issued, creation of bicameral govt., Reichstag, or upper house as well as lower legislative house h. Reichstag worked through 1918

22. V. The Habsburg Empire 2. Franz Joseph crowned emperor of a united Austria-Hungary, 1867 a. Under agreement: 1. Austria & Hungary wholly separate states b. shared ministers of foreign affairs, defense, and finance c. Every year delegates came from both Hungary & Austria to renegotiate political and trade agreement 3. Compromise of 1867: a. Hungary, political loyalty based on nationality as Hungary recognized as distinct part of monarchy based on nationalism b. Czech, Ruthenians, Romanians, Croations opposed Compromise of 1867 as German-speaking Austrians allowed to dominate empire c. 1897 Germans & Czechs given equality of language in own regions(local language written, spoken in own areas) d. universal male suffrage announced e. however, emperor still ruled by divine decree e. problems would remain as Croats & Poles wanted independence f. Serbia given independence who had religious, cultural, language ties to Russia g. by 1916 Austrian-Hungarian empire would collapse(during WW I) h. many of these ethnic groups still in political, economic, military battle today

23. VI. Russia, Emancipation and Revolutionary Stirrings A. Russia’s rulers saw nationalization as a threat to the Empire B. The Great Reforms: 1. open-field system of agriculture still existed 2. serfs were virtual slaves 3. lord(land owner) could force serfs into military service, exact severe punishment on serfs 4. Crimean war-(1853-1856), forced modernization of Russia as military inadequacies apparent(need to improve military/soldiers) 5. serfdom abolished 1861, collective ownership of land established, local assemblies (zemstvos) established, legal system reformed Csar Alexandar III

24. VI. Russia, Emancipation and Revolutionary Stirrings 6. Industrialization: a. railroads inspired nationalism, stimulated economy b. assassination of Alexander III ended reforms c. foreign ideas, monies used to build factories, create modern coal mines, steel plants, petroleum industries C. Revolution of 1905: a. Russian Imperialist military ambitions squashed as Japan defeated Russian Navy in 1905 b. “Bloody Sunday massacre” where Tsar’s troops fired on protesting civilians Csar Alexandar III

25. VI. Russia, Emancipation and Revolutionary Stirrings For millions of Russian serfs, working the land was a way of life.

26. VI. Russia, Emancipation and Revolutionary Stirrings E. Freedom for Serfs 1. 1861 Alexander IIIended the practice of serfdom 2. Difficult for Serfs to obtain land from nobility 3. Councils, or zemstvos were given local legal authority which replaced landowners of the past 4. Maximum military service for serfs limited to 15 years 5. 1874 enlistment down to six years, nine for reserves 6. Overall, attempts at reform did little to increase Alexander’s popularity D. Life of a Russian Serf 1. Serfs often never left land born on 2. most illiterate (could not read/write) 3. Serfs could be sold along with land 4. forced into Russian army on order of land owner 5. Serfs could not marry without landowners permission

27. VI. Russia, Emancipation and Revolutionary Stirrings

28. VI. Russia, Emancipation and Revolutionary Stirrings 4. Brother, Nicholas, would take over as Tzar F. Alexander II assassinated March 1, 1881 1. Terrorism had increased in Russia by 1870’s 2. The People’s Will, dedicated to a complete overthrow threw bomb under coach Alexander II was riding in 3. Four men, two women caught, sentenced to death, including brother of Vladimir Lenin

29. VI. Russia, Emancipation and Revolutionary Stirrings The Fruits of Terrorism, 1881 In the late 1870s a small group of revolutionaries believed that killing the tsar could destroy the Russian state. Succeeding in blowing up the reforming Alexander II after several near misses, the five assassins, including one woman, were quickly caught and hanged. Russia entered an era of reaction and harsh authoritarian rule.

30. VII. Great Britain: Toward Democracy A. The 2nd Reform Act of 1867 1. Political party in power, Conservatives, introduced bill in 1867 2. Increased number of voters from 1,430,000 to 2,470,000 3. Benjamin Disraeli focused on middle class, which he felt would be more conservative than lower classes B. Gladstone’s Great Ministry (1868-1874) 1. removed last remnants of aristocracy in govt., by stopping the selling of officer commissions, religious requirement for Oxford, Cambridge 2. Education Act of1870 required govt., to ensure public education for elementary schools

31. VII. Great Britain: Toward Democracy C. Suez Canal and Disraeli 1. The Suez Canal is an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt, connecting the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. Opened in November 1869, it allows water transportation between Europe and Asia without navigating around Africa. The northern terminus is Port Said and the southern terminus is Port Tawfik at the city of Suez. Ismailia lies on its west bank, 3 km (1.9 mi) north of the half-way point.[1 2. Financial problems forced Egypt to borrow funds to continue construction, including funds from Britain. 3. When Egypt was near bankruptcy Britain(Disraeli) agreed to purchase majority stock of Suez Canal, thereby gaining control rather than Egypt

32. VII. Great Britain: Toward Democracy D. The Irish Question 1. 1884 reform act gave suffrage to Irish males 2. 1869 de-established Church of Ireland (part of Anglican Church). Irish hated Anglican Church, attended Roman Catholic Church 3. various land reforms including rights for tenant farmers and protection from landowners who were oftentimes Protestant 4. Irish Land League put pressure on landowners, govt., for reformers 5. Attempts to give Irish autonomy, Home Rule, pushed by liberals(Gladstone) though opposition from Conservatives, Liberal Unionists would block home rule vote