An Introduction to Linguistics 《 语言学概论 》 by Hu Yining

1. An Introduction to Linguistics《语言学概论》 by Hu Yining

2. About the course • Linguistics is a university course for English majors in their 3rd or 4th year and it involves many fields of research (e.g. psychology, sociology, philosophy), so it’s not surprising if you find it difficult at the beginning. • It’s a must for language students to learn something about linguistics and very important for those who want to do further study after graduation. • The course will be given mainly in English, but in Chinese when necessary.

3. A few requests: • Attend the course regularly since it’s a compulsory course . • Not an optional one. No absence from class without reasonable reasons. • Take notes, remember the terminal words and facts, and do the revision. • Continuous assessment will be given for the course, so fulfill all the assignments satisfactorily including the “Further Reading” part at the back of the textbook (P.275-298).

4. A list of reference books: 1.《语言学教程》 (英语版), 胡壮麟, 北京大学出版社。 2.《语言学概论》 王德春， 上海外语教育出版社。 3.《现代英语语言学概论（英语版）戴炜栋, 上海外语教育出版社。 4.《现代语言学》何兆熊 梅德明，外语教学与研究出版社 5.《简明英语语言学教程》（英语版）戴炜栋等， 上海外语教育出版社 6.《语言学和语言的应用》 王宗炎，上海外语教育出版社 7.《语言学》 H.G.Widdowson， 上海外语教育出版社 8.《语言学入门》（英语版） Stuart C. Poole 外语教学与 研究出版社

5. Chapter 1 Language and Linguistics • The Nature of Language (P.1~P.13) • What is language? As human beings, we can feel the existence of language everywhere. However, very few of us know the true nature of language. There is remarkable uncertainty as how language really functions in human communication. Great efforts have been made to define the nature of language from different points of view (See the 4 ones on P.1).

6. Some additional ones: • Language is the most frequently used and most highly developed form of human communication we possess. ── David Crystal • 语言是音义结合的词汇和语法的体系，是人类最重要的工具，是人类思维的工具，也是社会上传递信息的工具。 ── 王德春

7. Unfortunately, a perfect and satisfactory definition has yet to come. • Despite the differences in their views, many linguists have agreed to accept the view that “Language is, in essence, a system of symbols designed for the purpose of human communication.” （就其本质而言，语言是人类以交际为目的而设计的一套符号系统）. • They have come to a general agreement about the following important features that are typical of the nature of human languages.

8. The defining properties of human language (语言的特性) Design features（识别特征）: The possession of language most clearly distinguishes man from other animals. Human language has five features: 1. Creativity（创造性）─We all have the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in our native languages. （在母语所规定的限制范围内，人可以在构词、造句、理解句子方面有着无限的创造力。）

9. 2. Arbitrariness（任意性）── Except the very few onomatopoeic words (e.g. cuckoo, mew, bang, ding-dong, ping-pang), there is no necessary relationship between the sign/sound and what the sign/sound means(e.g. a dog, un chien, 狗 )（除了极少数拟声词之外，语言中大部 分的词与其所表示的意思之间都没有内在 的、必然的联系。完全是一种任意的选定.)

10. 3. Duality of structure (or double articulation)（结构的双重性）: • This property is usually claimed to be unique to humans. Each human language is organized into two basic systems: a system of sounds and a system of meanings • Higher level ─ Language is a combination of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words). • Lower level ── Language is a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning (such as letters, phonetic symbols.)

11. (* Why is duality regarded as an important feature of human language? Because: i. A far greater number of messages can be sent; ii. No animal communication possesses it. ) 4. Displacement（不受时空限制性） ── Human language can cope with any subject what ever, and it does not matter how far away the topic is in time and space. （语言可以用来表达任何时间、任何地点的任何抽象或具体的人、事、物）.

12. 5.Cultural transmission（文化传递特性/从头学的必要性） ── The details of the linguistic system must be learned anew from the beginning by each speaker. Without the environment of language and communication, language can’t be acquired . （语言非遗传所得，人人都得从头学 起。没有语言 环境，没有交流环境，语言是无法习得的）.

13. 1.1.1 Language Is Systematic (P.2) • --- This property is usually claimed to be unique to humans. Each human language is organized into two basic systems: a system of sounds and a system of meanings. This is called the duality of language. • --- Human language operated on two levels of structure. At one level, elements have no meaning themselves. They have meaning when combined to form units at another level. • --- In the meaning system, these units of meaning can be arranged in an infinitive number of ways to express both simple and complicated ideas.

14. A language offers its speaker the opportunity to talk about anything. The number of words in a language is relatively finite but their possible combination can be infinite. • The syntax of a language may deal with the ordering of words, which actually is the rules for the formation of sentences and parts of sentences such as phrases and clauses. • (Have a look at the exercises at the back of this part on P. 3.)

15. 1.1.2 Language Is Symbolic (P.3-5) • People use signs to communicate, which means that language involves signs. • The way in which people communicate through signs and images, or the study of it is referred to as “semiology” or “semiotics”. • Roland Barthes and others extend semiology to include complex cultural forms of communication such as painting, music, films, theatre, dance, clothing, advertising, architecture, literature, and even food.

16. Traditionally, signs are divided into natural signs and conventional signs. According to Traugott & Pratt, signs can be categorized into 3 major types: • (1) Icon (图像符号)---When an object and its sign are related by a physical resemblance, we say the sign is an icon (如：路标，男女图案，刀叉图案). • (2) Index（指示符号）---When an object and its sign are associated to each other by physical proximity, we call the sign an index （如：各种天气预报标识，心被剑射中的图案）. • (3) Symbol (象征符号)---When a sign and the object it signifies are associated by social convention, the sign is called a symbol （如：交通灯，结婚戒指，国旗，鸽子，倒写的福字，条桌上的花瓶和镜子，五只蝙蝠，玫瑰花等等）。

17. One has to learn symbolic signs as part of the culture. Accordingly, language belongs to this type of signs. Language is mainly symbolic. • Words are associated with objects, actions, and ideas by social convention. • The symbolic nature of language is more important and complicated than any other types of signs, and more embracing and representative of all the features of all signs. • Without the symbolic signs of language, we can not talk about anything as we like.

18. In today’s multimedia world, there are many instances of meaning being expressed by different types of signs working together. Typical examples can be found in commercial advertisements on TV (电视广告：药，洗发水，保健品)。 • (Have a look at the exercises at the back of this part on P. 5.)

19. 1.1.3 Language Is Arbitrary (P. 6-7) • The forms of linguistic signs bear no natural resemblance to their meaning. The link between them is a matter of convention, and conventions differ radically across languages. • Arbitrariness does not imply that the choice of the signifier is left entirely to the speaker. The individual does not have the power to change a sign in any way once it has become established in the linguistic community.

20. The understanding of arbitrariness is not easy. Words are arbitrary in form, but they are not random in their use. One thing we should note that although the link between form and meaning is arbitrary, there exists certain relationship between them. • (Have a look at the exercises at the back of this part on P. 7.)

21. 1.1.4 Language Is Primarily Vocal (P. 7) • The relationship between writing and speaking: 1. The primary medium of language is sound. No matter how well developed are their writing systems, all languages use sounds. 2. Writing is based on speaking. Writing systems are attempts to capture sounds and meanings on paper. Writing can influence speaking

22. Why do we say that language is primarily vocal? Because: 1) Children learn to speak before they learn to read and write; 2) Children automatically learn a language as they grow up. There is normally no tutoring, but with writing, the learning process is different. The development of reading proficiency depends to a great degree upon the pedagogical skills or teachers. 3) The spoken form came earlier than the written in human history. The written form of any language is always much more recent than the spoken.

23. 4) Writing is based on speech. Writing system represents some levels of the spoken language, such as distinct words, syllables, or sounds. 5) People use spoken language more often than writing. People use the spoken form more frequently than writing as a basic form of verbal communication. • (Have a look at the exercises at the back of this part on P. 10.)

24. 1.1.5 Language Is Human Specific (P. 10.) • There are certain characteristics of human language that are not found in the communication system of any other species. • Attempts to teach animals more complicated systems have ended in failure. • Human children can acquire language with ease, and without intensive and directed instruction. Yet, animals lack the capacity to learn. They do not have the mental capacity to be communicatively creative.

25. The differences between human language and animal communication: • Language has the ability to refer to things far removed in time and space. • Humans have the ability to produce and understand an indefinite number of novel utterances (creativity/openness/productivity). No animal can communicate creatively with another animal. • Learning is much more important as a factor in human language than in animal communication. Human languages have very much in common, but they differ from one another on many specific points

26. Language is complex in its structure. Human language structure and language use are vastly more complex than any known animal communication system. • Animal communication systems are closed, whereas human languages are open-ended. People can talk about anything they can observe or imagine. • Humans can perform acts with language just as they can with objects of different kinds. • (Have a look at the exercises at the back of this part on P. 12.)

27. 1.1.6. Language Is Used for Communication • Language is used for communication. Language is the result of our communication needs. Its attractiveness comes from its social utility. • Human beings communicate in ways different from those used by any species. Through language we can do things animals can not do. • It is by the use of language that we can transmit our social heritage from one generation to the next.

28. Two-way communication occurs frequently when the sending and receiving functions are performed with equal frequency by two or more persons. • With the growth in foreign travel, the migration of people to other countries, and expansion of international trade, there has been an increase in intercultural communication across national and ethnic borders. • (Discuss the exercises at the back of this part on P. 13.)

29. 1.2 The Functions of Language (P.14~20) • The term communication can be used to cover most of the function of language. But the function of language is varied, in terms of using the language to chat, to think, to buy and sell, to read and write, to greet people, etc. • Language functions in our society as a principal means of communication. It also functions as social control. It is not only a psychological phenomenon, but also a social fact.

30. Language is not a self-contained system, but entirely dependent on the society in which it is used. We must study meaning with reference to an analysis of the functions of language in any given culture. Malinowski distinguishes three major functions of language: • the pragmatic（语用的，务实的） function: language as a form of action; • the magical function: language as a means of control over environment;

31. the phatic(寒暄的，社交的) function：language as a means to help establish and maintain social relations. • We can categorize the functions of language into general functions and metafunctions (元功能，纯理功能). General functions refer to the particular individual uses of language while metafunctions refer to the larger, more general purposes underlying language use.

32. 1.2.1 General Functions of Language • Language enables humans to do many things, thus serving different functions in the society. • Finch lists the following 7 general functions of language: 1.2.1.1 Physiological Function (生理功能－发泄、释放情绪) • Language can help get rid of nervous or physical energy. This function is also known as the emotive or expressive function of language.

33. There are many emotive utterances in our daily life which serve no communicative purpose but allow us to release inner feelings (e.g. Shoot! 快呀！踢呀！). • A great deal of what we say when angry is simply to relieve our physical and nervous energy caused by emotional distress (e.g. “bad language”, swear words, obscenities, and taboos).

34. 1.2.1.2 Phatic Function (寒暄功能，社交功能) • Language can serve the function of creating or • maintaining social relationship between speakers. • We often use language simply to express our • willingness to be sociable. No factual content is • involved (Different ways of greetings in different • countries). They are just conversation-fillers.

35. In this sense, language can act as a form of social bonding that links people together. Failure to observe these social courtesies can cause considerable embarrassment and even bad feelings. • Cultures vary greatly in the topics which they permit as phatic communication (e.g. Lovely day, isn’t it? 吃过了吗？) • The phatic use of language is mainly spoken but there are some written equivalents (e.g. Dear Sir/Madam, Yours faithfully) .

36. 1.2.1.3 Recording Function(记录功能－不受时空限制性) • Language allows us to record things we wish to remember. It might be a short-term shopping list or a long-term diary or history of some kind. • This function of language is represented by all kinds of record-keeping, such as historical records, geographical surveys, business accounts, and data banks.

37. Without language, it would be impossible for us to trace the history of humans and modern commercial life would be impossible. • This function is the most important function behind the development of language from being an oral medium to becoming a written one.

38. 1.2.1.4 Identifying Function(识别功能－－语言的任 意性) • Language also allows us to identify, with considerable precise, an enormous array of objects and events. • Without language, it would be very difficult to make sense of the world around us. Because we know the names of things, we can refer to them quickly and accurately in good order.

39. Names are made up and essentially arbitrary. To call a table a chair would not change the reality of the thing. • Words do not exist in isolation but are part of the social network. 1.2.1.5 Reasoning Function(论证、推理功能) • Much of our thinking is done with words or, to be more exact, in words. So, language is commonly regarded as a tool of thoughts.

40. When we have ideas forming in our minds, we need to find the appropriate words to express these ideas. • Our ideas are coded in language. Although the relationship between language and the mind is complicated, speaking and writing are forms of thoughts. This is why most people feel that they have not really understood something until they have been able to express it in language. (How about “只能意会，不能言传”？)

41. A problem is that the meaning of many words are not stable and as a consequence it is difficult to think with any precision. Words mean different things to different people and may have different connotations （e.g. Monday morning, 十三点，二百五）. • In recent years, however, a number of studies have shown that not everything in our mental life depends on language.

42. 1.2.1.6 Communicating Function(交际功能) • As we have seen in the previous section, language is a means of communicating ideas and facts. • In human society, people need to understand and be understood, to have their feelings and ideas recognized and acknowledged.

43. We use language to express ourselves to others. We also need language in order to understand what others are communicating to us. • We use language for requesting, ordering, promising, asking for permission, and so on (e.g. All the Dialogue 2. parts in A New English Course—functional English).

44. All human achievements are closely related to successful acts of communication. Language is the most developed and most subtle way to perform communication acts, and it is the natural inheritance of humans.

45. 1.2.1.7. Pleasure Function(愉悦功能) • Language allows us to derive pleasure from it. A large part of the pleasure we derive from language comes from the successful exploitation of linguistic novelty at different levels of the language. • Advertisers (cross-talking) exploit this capacity just as much as poets and novelists.

46. At the simplest level there is the enjoyment of sound itself and the melody of certain combination of sounds (e.g. No Sun, no fun! 沟通从“心”开始； “胃！你好吗？”；斯达舒—“四大叔”). • Most poetry exploit this function (onomatopoeia, alliteration头韵, and assonance谐音).

47. Examples • Onomatopoeia: The stream is murmuring through the woods. Jane started giggling. The door crashed open. Heavy rain drops began pitter-pattering on the tent. I eat what I can, I can what I can’t. • Alliteration: Promise, Problem, and Provision. Presentation, Practice and Production. World-wide web.

48. Assonance: fair and square; near and dear; The rain in Spain stays mainly in plains. • At the syntactical level, we can gain pleasure from rearrangement by inversion or ellipsis of normal phrases or clauses order and from the conversion of words from one class to another. These changes play against our normal expectation from language and create a sense of novelty.

49. Examples • Inversion: Up goes the prices of daily necessities, and down come the living conditions of people. • Ellipsis: Got troubles? I came, I saw, I conqured.

50. At the level of meaning, most creative uses of language provide considerable pleasure through the generation of puns（双关）, paradoxes（矛盾修辞法,反论）, ambiguities（含糊其辞，歧义）, and metaphors. With these the oddness is not necessarily syntactic but lies in the capacity of the language to generate a plurality（大量不同的事物）of possible meanings.