Evolution of Warfare

1. Evolution of Warfare The American Revolution 1775-1783 MOI

2. Learning Objectives • Contrast/compare the expressions “strategy of attrition” and “partisan warfare,” and apply them to the American Revolution • Discuss British and American strategy and objectives, and note how they changed during the course of the American Revolution • Contrast the Continental Army with the professional armies of the 18th century and show how this difference dictated Washington’s strategy • Explain how French intervention tipped the balance in favor of America in the War for Independence

4. Causes • Two causes • Taxation • Quartering of troops to defend against Indian forays after expulsion of French • British felt colonists should pay • Acts of Trade & Navigation ignored(smuggling) • Stamp Act, Revenue Act, Quartering Act • “No Taxation, without Representation!”

5. Causes • Real causes • Colonists had intellectual differences with British government (king vs. parliament) • Colonists had spirit of self-independence brought about by frontier life • Colonists believed in democratic form of government vice oligarchy

6. Other factors • Colonist goals distinct from mother country • British victory in French/Indian War freed colonists of need for protection from French • 1763 - British move to tighten imperial control (station 10,000 soldiers along American frontier @ colonist expense)

7. Definition of Terms • Attrition - gradual weakening • Partisan - “irregular” troops • Guerilla warfare - “irregular” troops fighting small-scale, limited actions against larger orthodox military forces

8. Application of Terms • Strategy of Attrition - adopted by Washington due to economy • long lines of communication • English enemies in Europe (need to protect homeland) • popular support in England for colonies (prospect of long war might cause England to abandon cause) • Down side - division in colonies

9. Application of Terms • Partisan Warfare • local militias supported nucleus of continental soldiers • tactics well suited to means and background (Cowpens is classic example) • Irregular troops- citizen soldiers

10. American Strategyand Objectives • Population - 1/3 rebel, 1/3 loyalist, 1/3 indifferent. • Loyalists provided more support to England than rebels provided to Continental Army • Two wars - foreign war against major European power & civil war • Strategic defensive for most of war

11. Lexington & Bunker Hill • Lexington gave impetus to siege of Boston & battle of Bunker Hill • Bunker Hill affected military policy: • convinced that regular military was unnecessary • Gen Howe henceforth failed to press victories • The battle served to prove to the American people that the British Army was not invincible. It became a symbol of national pride and a rally point of resistance against British rule.

12. Concord and Lexington • Concord • Col Barrett on the North Bridge • 3 companies of minutemen and one alarm company under Prescott • British opened fire on the approaching rebels • British won initial battle but a 16 mile gauntlet was formed by militia • Broke the British discipline • Ruthless on both sides • Losses: British: 273 Rebels: 93

13. Battles • Concord and Lexington Apr 1775 • Paul Revere “One if by land, two if by sea” • Left at 2200 at night • Lexington • Rebels tried to leave and were fired upon, did not lay down weapons • Capt Jonas Parker and 7 others killed • One British soldier wounded

14. Battles • Entire population was under arms and fought the British (Lord Percy) back to Boston • British lost 259 men • Militia Proved its value • Result was that Gage was not surrounded on Boston • Continental Congress formed the “Army of the United Colonies under Washington • Benedict Arnold Emerged

15. Battles • Bunker Hill • British – Gage wanted the rebels off the hill (Bunker and Breeds) • Ordered Howe to take Bunker Hill • Howe attacked Breed’s hill twice without success and finally a third time and was successful (rebels out of ammo) • Cost: British 1,054 Rebels 441 • Very heavy % for both

17. General Washington • After Bunker Hill he was forced to change to more Fabian Tactics by avoiding battle whenever he could.

18. Battles • Saratoga Campaign • Ticonderoga • LtCol St. Clair 2500 plus 900 militia • Burgoyne for the British with a force of British, Germans and Jagers • British landed and occupied the high ground • St Clair withdrew to Saratoga

19. Battles • Saratoga Campaign • 1st Battle 19 Sept 77 • Gates holds strong but with German reinforcements Burgoyne defeats him • 2nd Battle 7 Oct 77 • Arnold rallies the Americans to victory • Burgoyne surrenders on 17 Oct 77

22. Saratoga • Turning point in revolution • British now held only N.Y. City, Part of R.I., & Philadelphia • France recognized U.S. & signed treaty of alliance (1778) • France & colonies now more aggressive

23. Southern Campaign • Gen Greene - war of maneuver against Cornwallis • marched and counter-marched against main armies • used partisan bands under Lee, Pickens, Sumter, & Marion to harass flanks, cut off supplies, attack posts & put down loyalist aid

24. Southern Campaign • Intentionally violated principle of mass: • Divided forces could live off land • More rallying points for local militia • Tempted Cornwallis to split his force • Sacrificed mass for maneuver • Combination of regular and Guerilla warfare speedily reduced British occupation

25. British Strategyand Objectives • British Ministry Plan: • Occupy territory to break up union of patriots • Blockade coast to prevent re-supply from sea • Destroy organized armies • Suppress Guerilla warfare

26. British Strategy and Objectives • Plan actually carried out: • Make N.Y. City headquarters (occupy) • Secure from NYC to Hudson Valley to Canada • Cut off New England - hotbed of sedition and source of supplies, ideas, encouragement & reinforcements • Actually only held one port (Newport) in New England

27. British Strategyand Objectives • South of NY the line was Chesapeake Bay • Strong positions in Maryland and Virginia. • Attempt to isolate the middle from the south and prevent communication. • Controlling the south: Occupy Charleston and 2 or 3 points along the Santee River in SC.

28. British Strategyand Objectives • Advantage: Royal Navy - freedom of maneuver along coastal strip • Disadvantage: no critical point to maneuver against along coast, unable to physically control all the territory

29. British Strategyand Objectives • Economic warfare • Blockade • Counterfeiting • ruining value of continental money • making own purchases with Gold

30. British Force • Classic 18th century European Army • Linear tactics • Well-trained soldiers • Loyalty & dedication suspect in England • Sympathy for colonists • Hessians (mercenaries) employed

31. American Force • Most forces @ home for local defense - few forces for continental army • Prior to von Steuben - little discipline • Steuben served under Frederick • Made I.G. of Washington’s Army • Streamlined musket loading & uniformity • Standardized training - speed and tactics • Discipline instilled

32. American Force • Used rifle more than British • Most useful in Guerilla actions • Of great value in wooded areas • slow rate of fire • lack of bayonet • inferior to musket for open-field fighting

33. Battles • Cowpens 1/17/81 • Great American Victory • Turning Point? Changed the psychology of the war • Morgan against Tarleton • Americans • Camped at Cowpens between two small hill tops • Motivated by Morgan at night by the campfires

34. American Force • Cowpens (Jan, 1781) • Numerically equal forces, but Americans were 3/4 militia • Continental infantry on hill, leaving flanks open • Militia riflemen in front • 1st line fires two volleys, falls back • combined line fires until British presses • Then fall back to rear & become reserve

35. Battles • British • Attacked head on with Dragoons (British Calvary) on the flanks and artillery in the center • Thought it would be an easy victory and that the Americans would flee quickly.

37. Battles • Americans • Anticipated Tarleton’s tactics • Formed in three lines • Sharpshooters out front behind trees • Andrew Pickens Militia 150 yds back • Two volleys and fall back • Howard’s Continentals 150 yds back

39. Battles • Cowpens: Actions in the field • Sharpshooters picked off many British Officers and Dragoons • Dragoons retreated and the sharpshooter fell back to the 2nd line • 2nd line got off two volleys and fell back to the 3rd line but were caught by a second charge of the Dragoons • William Washington’s Patriot Cavalry came out of nowhere to join the battle and routed the British Dragoons

40. Battles • Cowpens: Actions in the field • Infantry on both sides continued to fire volley after volley • British advanced at a trot • Morgan rallied the Americans • British 71st Highlanders came from the reserve and charged the American line • Howard on the right flank ordered his units to face slightly right and face the charge. • Order was confused as to retreat. • Americans started falling back

41. Battles • Cowpens: Actions in the field • Morgan confronted Howard and turned the retreating forces around. • The British thought the Americans were in retreat and had broken ranks to pursue. • The Americans turned and delivered devastating volleys into the British forces. • American conducted a fierce bayonet charge and broke the British lines. • American forces then conducted a double envelopment of the British • British Infantry surrendered

42. Battles • Cowpens: Actions in the field • Tarleton fled and dueled William Washington. • Made it to Cornwalis’ camp to tell him of the news • 1 hour battle • 110 KIA, 200 WIA 500 POW for the British • 12 KIA, 60 WIA for the Americans

43. Impact of French • French anxious to regain international position • Helped in three other significant ways: • Loans • Use of French ports for American privateers • Protected American vessels near French Waters

44. Judging English Failure • Initial plan could have worked • Didn’t act with resolution hoping for conciliatory measures • Adequate forces never provided • British didn’t use strategic initiative to advantage • No Unity of Command • No defined objective • Lord Germain directed to much from England: • Lacked timeliness, knowledge and may have been incompetent

45. Impact “well regulated” militia • Trained and organized under a uniform system in all states and could be called into national service • balanced rights with obligated military service • impact of “peoples army” fighting for cause vice professional army • new concept of total war for total victory (conscription/draft)

46. Impact • Changed tactics • Rifle • increased range • improved accuracy • made linear tactics difficult • British adopted American tactics • skirmishes • cover • concealment

47. Weapons of the War . Flintlock musket and pistol

48. Weapons of the War • Rifles were used more in the south and during guerilla type operations for accuracy. • Took too long to reload for the battle field. • Could not use bayonet American long Rifle

49. Weapons of the War • Musket balls were undersized for quick reloading • Bayonets were mounted on them • Paper cartridges • NO sights • Used volleys to compensate for the inaccurate muskets • French provided most of them

50. Weapons of the War Artillery