Adolescence: Physical Development

1. Adolescence: Physical Development Direct students to www.cengage.com/psychology/rathus for an interactive version of this Truth or Fiction feature. Substance abuse is highest among African American and Latino American high school students. FALSE. See A Closer Look - Diversity: Sex, College Plans, Ethnicity, and Substance Abuse.Direct students to www.cengage.com/psychology/rathus for an interactive version of this Truth or Fiction feature. Substance abuse is highest among African American and Latino American high school students. FALSE. See A Closer Look - Diversity: Sex, College Plans, Ethnicity, and Substance Abuse.

2. Puberty The Biological Explosion Teaching Tip: Before students begin to read this chapter, have them write down thoughts about their own experiences during adolescence (physical, cognitive, and social/emotional). Compile their responses (no names attached) and use this list as a reference for the next two chapters. How typical were their experiences?Teaching Tip: Before students begin to read this chapter, have them write down thoughts about their own experiences during adolescence (physical, cognitive, and social/emotional). Compile their responses (no names attached) and use this list as a reference for the next two chapters. How typical were their experiences?

3. What Is Adolescence? Transitional period between childhood and adulthood G. Stanley Hall Proposed adolescence as separate stage Marked by Sturm and Drang Sigmund Freud Genital stage Anna Freud Turbulent period Current theorists Reorganization, not necessarily turbulent or stressful Teaching Tip: Divide the class into two groups and have the groups support or dispute the following statement: Adolescence is a time of emotional and physical upheaval and dramatic change for all adolescents. Teaching Tip: Divide the class into two groups and have the groups support or dispute the following statement: Adolescence is a time of emotional and physical upheaval and dramatic change for all adolescents.

4. What Is Adolescence? Three Phases of Adolescence Early adolescence (11 or 12 � 14 years) Middle adolescence (14 � 16 years) Late adolescence (16 � 20 years) Tweens Earlier age for adolescence Emerging Adulthood Later age for adolescence Teaching Tip: Have students reflect on the various phases presented in this section. In their opinion, are these valid phases? Are there other phases that should be included, deleted, or changed?Teaching Tip: Have students reflect on the various phases presented in this section. In their opinion, are these valid phases? Are there other phases that should be included, deleted, or changed?

5. What Is Puberty? Puberty is a biological concept Attaining sexual maturity and ability to reproduce Puberty is controlled by feedback loop Hypothalamus � Pituitary gland � Gonads � Hormones Sex hormones trigger development of Primary sex characteristics Secondary sex characteristics Teaching Tip: Nursing & Health: Have students dig a little deeper into the physical changes that occur during adolescence. What starts these changes? At what point are these changes complete? Students may share their findings in a class discussion. Teaching Tip: Nursing & Health: Ask students to find out what specific illnesses are common during adolescence. What illnesses can be life-threatening at this age?Teaching Tip: Nursing & Health: Have students dig a little deeper into the physical changes that occur during adolescence. What starts these changes? At what point are these changes complete? Students may share their findings in a class discussion. Teaching Tip: Nursing & Health: Ask students to find out what specific illnesses are common during adolescence. What illnesses can be life-threatening at this age?

6. What Happens During the Adolescent Growth Spurt? Girls begin their growth spurt earlier than boys Reach peak growth in height about 2 years after spurt began Continue to grow at a slower rate for another 2 years Weight spurt begins about 18 months after height spurt Boys catch up to girls and eventually are taller and heavier Body shapes differ by sex Boys have broader shoulders Girls gain almost twice as much fatty tissue

7. Spurts in Growth Figure 14.1 Spurts in Growth. Girls begin the adolescent growth spurt about 2 years earlier than boys. Girls and boys reach their periods of peak growth about 2 years after the spurt begins � at about 12 and 14 years, respectively.Figure 14.1 Spurts in Growth. Girls begin the adolescent growth spurt about 2 years earlier than boys. Girls and boys reach their periods of peak growth about 2 years after the spurt begins � at about 12 and 14 years, respectively.

8. Growth Curves for Height and Weight Figure 14.2 Growth Curves for Height and Weight. Girls are taller and heavier than boys from about age 9 or 10 until about age 13 since their growth spurt occurs earlier. Once boys begin their growth spurt, they catch up with girls and eventually become taller and heavier. Source: Kuczmarski et al. (2000, Figures 9-12).Figure 14.2 Growth Curves for Height and Weight. Girls are taller and heavier than boys from about age 9 or 10 until about age 13 since their growth spurt occurs earlier. Once boys begin their growth spurt, they catch up with girls and eventually become taller and heavier. Source: Kuczmarski et al. (2000, Figures 9-12).

9. What Happens During the Adolescent Growth Spurt? Asynchronous Growth Exception to proximodistal growth Hands and feet mature before arms and legs Reversal of cephalocaudal growth Legs reach peak growth before shoulders and chest Secular Trend May have reached genetic potential In industrialized countries Middle-upper-class families � stopped growing taller Poorer families continue to make gains Nutrition and health care are factors Truth or Fiction Revisited American adolescents are growing taller than their parents. (TRUE and FALSE) Teaching Tip: Parenting & Family Studies: Have students interview their extended family members about the timing of puberty and their current height. Can they detect any patterns that are consistent with the secular trend?Truth or Fiction Revisited American adolescents are growing taller than their parents. (TRUE and FALSE) Teaching Tip: Parenting & Family Studies: Have students interview their extended family members about the timing of puberty and their current height. Can they detect any patterns that are consistent with the secular trend?

10. Are We Still Growing Taller Than Our Parents? Figure 14.3 Are We Still Growing Taller Than Our Parents? Twentieth-century children grew more rapidly and grew taller than children in preceding centuries. However, it seems that children from affluent families are no longer growing taller than their parents. But children from the lower part of the socioeconomic spectrum are still doing so. Source: Tanner (1989).Figure 14.3 Are We Still Growing Taller Than Our Parents? Twentieth-century children grew more rapidly and grew taller than children in preceding centuries. However, it seems that children from affluent families are no longer growing taller than their parents. But children from the lower part of the socioeconomic spectrum are still doing so. Source: Tanner (1989).

11. Pubertal Changes in Boys Average age of 11� � first visible sign of puberty Growth of testes accelerates testosterone production Body hair growth Voice deepens � growth of larynx Acne Increase in penile erections Nocturnal emissions Gynecomastia � enlargement of breasts About age 20 to 21 � puberty ends Epiphyseal closure Teaching Tip: Nursing & Health: Have students find out more about gynecomastia. They should investigate whether any new treatments are available to adolescent boys who have that condition. Teaching Tip: Parenting & Family Studies: The physical changes associated with puberty can be alarming to both boys and girls. What advice do students think that parents should give adolescents to help ease the fear and answer the questions associated with puberty?Teaching Tip: Nursing & Health: Have students find out more about gynecomastia. They should investigate whether any new treatments are available to adolescent boys who have that condition. Teaching Tip: Parenting & Family Studies: The physical changes associated with puberty can be alarming to both boys and girls. What advice do students think that parents should give adolescents to help ease the fear and answer the questions associated with puberty?

12. Pubertal Changes in Girls Increased estrogen production Stimulates breast buds Promotes fatty tissue in hips and buttocks Production of androgen Simulates pubic and underarm hair growth Estrogen causes labia, vagina, and uterus to develop Androgens cause clitoris to develop

13. Pubertal Changes in Girls Menarche May begin as early as 9 or as late as 16 Body weight may trigger menarche Hormonal Regulation of Menstrual Cycle Ovulate 12 to 18 months after menarche Average menstrual cycle is 28 days May be irregular during first 2 years Psychological Impact of Menarche Rite of passage Educated and prepared � more positive Truth or Fiction Revisited Girls are fertile immediately after their first menstrual period. (FALSE) Teaching Tip: Nursing & Health: Have students find out more about the physical underpinnings of puberty and menarche. Also, have them find out more about the link between earlier menarche and later health problems. Students should share their findings in a class discussion. Teaching Tip: Education: Have students discuss how schools should be involved in preparing students for the physical changes associated with puberty. Are there some topics schools should not be allowed to discuss? Teaching Tip: Social Work & Counseling: What impact do parental attitudes have on how a girl accepts the onset of menstruation and the other changes associated with puberty? If possible, have students interview women of different generations to see how their experiences differ. Discuss their findings in class.Truth or Fiction Revisited Girls are fertile immediately after their first menstrual period. (FALSE) Teaching Tip: Nursing & Health: Have students find out more about the physical underpinnings of puberty and menarche. Also, have them find out more about the link between earlier menarche and later health problems. Students should share their findings in a class discussion. Teaching Tip: Education: Have students discuss how schools should be involved in preparing students for the physical changes associated with puberty. Are there some topics schools should not be allowed to discuss? Teaching Tip: Social Work & Counseling: What impact do parental attitudes have on how a girl accepts the onset of menstruation and the other changes associated with puberty? If possible, have students interview women of different generations to see how their experiences differ. Discuss their findings in class.

14. The Decline in Age at Menarche Figure 14.4 The Decline in Age at Menarche. The age at menarche has been declining since the mid-1800�s among girls in Western nations, apparently because of improved nutrition and health care. Menarche may be triggered by the accumulation of a critical percentage of body fat. Source: Tanner (1989).Figure 14.4 The Decline in Age at Menarche. The age at menarche has been declining since the mid-1800�s among girls in Western nations, apparently because of improved nutrition and health care. Menarche may be triggered by the accumulation of a critical percentage of body fat. Source: Tanner (1989).

15. What Are the Effects of Early or Late Maturation on Adolescents Boys Early maturation � more positive effects Popular, more poised, heightened self-worth Early maturation � negative effects Expectations and demands Late maturation Not rushed into maturity May feel dominated by early-maturing boys Lower-income � early maturation is greatest benefit Value physical prowess Teaching Tip: Ask students to reflect on their own physical maturation. Were they late or early maturers? What impact do they think that might have had on their self-esteem, social relationships, and other situations? They may also want to think about classmates: Who were the early maturers, the late maturers?Teaching Tip: Ask students to reflect on their own physical maturation. Were they late or early maturers? What impact do they think that might have had on their self-esteem, social relationships, and other situations? They may also want to think about classmates: Who were the early maturers, the late maturers?

16. What Are the Effects of Early or Late Maturation on Adolescents Girls Early maturation � more negative effects Negative body image Feel awkward and conspicuous More problems in school and emotional issues Truth or Fiction Revisited Boys and girls who mature early have higher self-esteem than those who mature late. (TRUE AND FALSE) Truth or Fiction Revisited Boys and girls who mature early have higher self-esteem than those who mature late. (TRUE AND FALSE)

17. How Do Adolescents Feel About Their Bodies? Girls have more negative body image Preoccupied with body weight By late adolescence body dissatisfaction declines Dissatisfaction with body image = feelings of depression Teaching Tip: Hold an in-class debate between the male and female students in your class. The men should defend the following statement: Boys have a tougher time during adolescence than girls. The women, in turn, should defend the opposite statement: Girls have a tougher time during adolescence than boys. Technology Tip: Have students read the article entitled �Teen Girls Have Tougher Times Than Boys� on the WebMD website. The class may discuss this article prior to the debate or as a follow-up. URL : http://www.webmd.com/parenting/news/20070207/teen-girls-have-tougher-time-than-boys Teaching Tip: Social Work & Counseling: Invite a counselor or therapist who works primarily with adolescents to come to class and talk about his or her experiences. What issues are most common in adolescent girls? In adolescent boys? What types of treatment have they found to be most effective in adolescents?Teaching Tip: Hold an in-class debate between the male and female students in your class. The men should defend the following statement: Boys have a tougher time during adolescence than girls. The women, in turn, should defend the opposite statement: Girls have a tougher time during adolescence than boys. Technology Tip: Have students read the article entitled �Teen Girls Have Tougher Times Than Boys� on the WebMD website. The class may discuss this article prior to the debate or as a follow-up. URL : http://www.webmd.com/parenting/news/20070207/teen-girls-have-tougher-time-than-boys Teaching Tip: Social Work & Counseling: Invite a counselor or therapist who works primarily with adolescents to come to class and talk about his or her experiences. What issues are most common in adolescent girls? In adolescent boys? What types of treatment have they found to be most effective in adolescents?

18. What Brain Developments Take Place During Adolescence? Increase in gray matter Gains in thickness of cerebral cortex based on learning � sensory and motor activities Synaptic pruning �Use it or lose it� Genes and environment play role in shaping the brain Teaching Tip: Social Work & Counseling: Have students discuss their thoughts about how brain development relates to impulsiveness, poor decision-making, self-consciousness, and other adolescent traits.Teaching Tip: Social Work & Counseling: Have students discuss their thoughts about how brain development relates to impulsiveness, poor decision-making, self-consciousness, and other adolescent traits.

19. What Happens to the Brain When an Adolescent Practices Piano Several Hours a Day? Figure 14.5 What Happens to the Brain When an Adolescent Practices Piano Several Hours a Day? One result is that parts of the gray matter among professional keyboard players than in amateurs and nonmusicians. The areas marked in yellow show stronger differences in thickness in the same direction. Source: C. Gaser & G. Schlaug. (2003). Brain structures differ between musicians and nonmusicians. Journal of Applied Neuroscience. 23 (27), 9240-9245. Copyright by the Society for Neuroscience. Reprinted with permission.Figure 14.5 What Happens to the Brain When an Adolescent Practices Piano Several Hours a Day? One result is that parts of the gray matter among professional keyboard players than in amateurs and nonmusicians. The areas marked in yellow show stronger differences in thickness in the same direction. Source: C. Gaser & G. Schlaug. (2003). Brain structures differ between musicians and nonmusicians. Journal of Applied Neuroscience. 23 (27), 9240-9245. Copyright by the Society for Neuroscience. Reprinted with permission.

20. Emerging Sexuality and Risks of Sexually Transmitted Infections Technology Tip: Before students read this section have them read about sexually transmitted infections on the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention website. URL: http://www.cdc.gov/std/Technology Tip: Before students read this section have them read about sexually transmitted infections on the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention website. URL: http://www.cdc.gov/std/

21. What Kinds of Sexually Transmitted Infections Are There? Bacterial infections Chlamydia Most common STI in adolescents Major cause of pelvic inflammatory disease Gonorrhea and syphilis Viral infections HIV/AIDS, genital herpes Genital warts caused by HPV Linked to cervical cancer Vaccine Teaching Tip: Nursing & Health: Have students divide into small groups or pairs. Each group should develop an information pamphlet for adolescents about the prevention and treatment of the common STIs. Ask students to present their pamphlets to the class and receive feedback regarding how effective this information would be for adolescents of various ages.Teaching Tip: Nursing & Health: Have students divide into small groups or pairs. Each group should develop an information pamphlet for adolescents about the prevention and treatment of the common STIs. Ask students to present their pamphlets to the class and receive feedback regarding how effective this information would be for adolescents of various ages.

22. HIV/AIDS Left untreated � lethal Risk factors for HIV/AIDS Young gay males Homeless and runaway youths Injecting drugs Women and HIV/AIDS Minority of cases in US Europe, Africa, SE Asia � sexually active teenage girls have higher rates than older women or young men Truth or Fiction Revisited Most adolescents in the United States are unaware of the risks of HIV/AIDS. (FALSE) Technology Tip: Assign students to read at least one of the fact sheets found on the website of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Have them share and discuss the information with the class. URL: http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/resources/factsheets/Truth or Fiction Revisited Most adolescents in the United States are unaware of the risks of HIV/AIDS. (FALSE) Technology Tip: Assign students to read at least one of the fact sheets found on the website of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Have them share and discuss the information with the class. URL: http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/resources/factsheets/

23. Rates per 100,000 Population of AIDS Diagnoses Among Adolescents Aged 15-19 Years, by Sex Figure 14.6 Rates per 100,000 Population of AIDS Diagnoses Among Adolescents Aged 15-19 Years, by Sex. Source: Gavin, L., et al. (2009, Figure 6). Figure 14.6 Rates per 100,000 Population of AIDS Diagnoses Among Adolescents Aged 15-19 Years, by Sex. Source: Gavin, L., et al. (2009, Figure 6).

24. What Factors Place Adolescents at Risk for Contracting STIs? Sexual activity Sex with multiple partners Failure to use condoms Drug abuse

25. What Can Be Done to Prevent STIs? Education Strategies Increased knowledge about STIs Prevention Strategies Enhance teens� sense of control Effective decision making and social skills Teaching Tip: Have students explore different types of programs (either in their community or on the Internet) that have been shown to be effective in preventing STIs. Students should share and discuss these programs in class. What factors might make these programs more effective than others?Teaching Tip: Have students explore different types of programs (either in their community or on the Internet) that have been shown to be effective in preventing STIs. Students should share and discuss these programs in class. What factors might make these programs more effective than others?

26. Health in Adolescence

27. How Healthy Are American Adolescents? Most American adolescents are healthy May be less healthy than their parents at the same age Lifestyle factors and risky behaviors Teaching Tip: As a class, have students generate a list of possible reasons today�s adolescents may be less healthy than their parents. What can be done to change that? Technology Tip: Have students explore a wide variety of topics related to adolescent health on the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention website. Students should share and discuss their findings in class. URL: http://www.cdc.gov/HealthyYouth/az/index.htmTeaching Tip: As a class, have students generate a list of possible reasons today�s adolescents may be less healthy than their parents. What can be done to change that? Technology Tip: Have students explore a wide variety of topics related to adolescent health on the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention website. Students should share and discuss their findings in class. URL: http://www.cdc.gov/HealthyYouth/az/index.htm

28. What Are the Causes of Death Among Adolescents? Death rates for males is twice as great as females Males more likely to take risks that end in accidents, suicide, or homicide Accidents 60% of teen deaths Most involve motor vehicles Alcohol is frequently implicated in accidental deaths Homicide More frequent for poor and in urban areas Greatest among African American adolescents Truth or Fiction Revisited Substance abuse is the leading cause of death among male adolescents in the United States. (FALSE)Truth or Fiction Revisited Substance abuse is the leading cause of death among male adolescents in the United States. (FALSE)

29. How Much Sleep do Adolescents Need? Need 8.5 to 9.25 hours of sleep per night Sleep deprivation 6 or fewer hours per night Reasons for insufficient sleep Hectic schedules and commitments Brain developments � phase delay Teaching Tip: Have students debate the idea of adolescents starting school later in the morning. What are the pros and the cons?Teaching Tip: Have students debate the idea of adolescents starting school later in the morning. What are the pros and the cons?

30. What Are the Nutritional Needs of Adolescents? Rapid growth Average girl � 1,800 to 2,400 calories Average boy � 2,200 to 3,200 calories Need for calcium � bone growth Females need to build up bone density and prevent osteoporosis Nutritional deficits Irregular eating habits Fast food or junk food Teaching Tip: Nursing & Health: Assign students to develop a comprehensive list of adolescent dietary needs. What are the short-term and long-term impact of poor nutrition on later development?Teaching Tip: Nursing & Health: Assign students to develop a comprehensive list of adolescent dietary needs. What are the short-term and long-term impact of poor nutrition on later development?

31. What Are Eating Disorders? Gross disturbances in eating patterns Anorexia Nervosa Weigh less than 85% of desirable body weight More frequent in females than males Severe weight loss impacts general health 4 to 5% mortality rate Bulimia Nervosa Characterized by recurrent cycles of binge eating and purging Tend to be perfectionistic about body Truth or Fiction Revisited You can never be too rich or too thin. (FALSE) Teaching Tip: Social Work & Counseling: Invite a therapist who works with adolescents who have eating disorders to visit the class. What types of issues are most common? What types of treatment have been found to be most effective?Truth or Fiction Revisited You can never be too rich or too thin. (FALSE) Teaching Tip: Social Work & Counseling: Invite a therapist who works with adolescents who have eating disorders to visit the class. What types of issues are most common? What types of treatment have been found to be most effective?

32. What Are the Origins of Eating Disorders? Psychoanalytic perspective Anorexia is an effort to regress to prepubescence Family control issues Child abuse, sexual abuse are risk factors Societal slender social ideal Demands of athletics and activities Genetic Technology Tip: Have students search for current research on eating disorders on the National Eating Disorders Association website. Students should share and discuss their findings in class. URL: http://www.nationaleatingdisorders.orgTechnology Tip: Have students search for current research on eating disorders on the National Eating Disorders Association website. Students should share and discuss their findings in class. URL: http://www.nationaleatingdisorders.org

33. Treatment and Prevention of Eating Disorders May require hospitalization and nasogastric (tube) feeding Antidepressants Family therapy Cognitive-behavioral therapy

34. What Is Substance Abuse? What Is Substance Dependence? Substance abuse Ongoing use of a substance despite the problems it causes Substance dependence No control over substance Tolerance � body becomes habituated to substance Abstinence syndrome � withdrawal symptoms Teaching Tip: Education: Invite a school psychologists or school counselors to talk to the class about their experiences with students and substance abuse. How do substance abuse issues influence learning and education?Teaching Tip: Education: Invite a school psychologists or school counselors to talk to the class about their experiences with students and substance abuse. How do substance abuse issues influence learning and education?

35. What Are the Effects of Depressants? Slows the activity of the nervous system Alcohol Lowers inhibitions Intoxicant Long-term drinking may produce serious physical disorders Heroin Provides an euphoric �rush� Barbiturates Legitimate medical uses Used illegally to produce a mild euphoria

36. What Are the Effects of Stimulants? Speed up heart beat and other bodily functions Nicotine Raises rate of burning calories, lowers appetite Addictive stimulant in tobacco Cocaine Euphoria, boosts self-confidence, reduces appetite Amphetamines Used to stay awake or reduce appetite High doses cause restlessness, insomnia, irritability

37. What Are the Effects of Hallucinogenics? Bring on perceptual distortions or hallucinations Marijuana Used to relax and elevate mood Impairs perceptual-motor coordination Interferes with short-term memory and learning Ecstasy (MDMA) Feelings of elation and self-confidence Lowers inhibitions and increases risky behaviors LSD Impairs coordination and judgment Hallucinations and paranoid delusions Teaching Tip: Have students compare and contrast the drugs discussed in this section. Ask them to make up their own characteristics to use in their comparisons, including short-term effects, long-term effects, and other factors.Teaching Tip: Have students compare and contrast the drugs discussed in this section. Ask them to make up their own characteristics to use in their comparisons, including short-term effects, long-term effects, and other factors.

38. How Widespread Is Substance Abuse? Illicit drug use by 8th- to 12th-grade students has declined Incidence of alcohol, cigarettes, and marijuana is relatively high Occasional death from alcohol overdose Connected with reckless behaviors Less than 2% high school students use steroids Used to build muscle mass More adolescents disapprove of regular drug use than experimental drug use Truth or Fiction Revisited Substance use and abuse is on the rise among high school students. (FALSE) Teaching Tip: Have students interview their friends and family members regarding their beliefs about drug use. What are the students� own experiences with drugs (if they�re willing to share), their experience with others they�ve known who have used drugs, and their current opinions regarding drug use. Should certain illegal drugs be legalized for medicinal purposes? Would they date or marry someone who had a known current or past drug history?Truth or Fiction Revisited Substance use and abuse is on the rise among high school students. (FALSE) Teaching Tip: Have students interview their friends and family members regarding their beliefs about drug use. What are the students� own experiences with drugs (if they�re willing to share), their experience with others they�ve known who have used drugs, and their current opinions regarding drug use. Should certain illegal drugs be legalized for medicinal purposes? Would they date or marry someone who had a known current or past drug history?

39. What Factors Are Associated with Substance Abuse and Dependence? Experimental use Peer pressure, acceptance by peers Rebelling against moral or social constraints Curiosity Escape from boredom Imitating parents or adults Social Cognitive Theory Someone has recommended them or they have observed someone using them Continued use depends on reinforcement

40. What Factors Are Associated with Substance Abuse and Dependence? Predictors of drug use and abuse Association with peers who use or tolerate drugs Parental communication discourages drug use School problems Biological factors

41. How Can We Treat and Prevent Substance Abuse? Difficult to treat Often doesn�t want to stop Relapse problems Need to address other disorders and family dysfunctions Teaching Tip: Social Work & Counseling: Invite an addiction counselor to class to discuss his or her experiences with adolescents who have substance abuse problems. What type of treatments have they found to be most effective? Technology Tip: Ask students to find out more about treatment approaches for drug addiction on the National Institute on Drug Abuse websites. Students should share and discuss their findings in class. URL: http://www.nida.nih.gov/infofacts/treatmeth.htmlTeaching Tip: Social Work & Counseling: Invite an addiction counselor to class to discuss his or her experiences with adolescents who have substance abuse problems. What type of treatments have they found to be most effective? Technology Tip: Ask students to find out more about treatment approaches for drug addiction on the National Institute on Drug Abuse websites. Students should share and discuss their findings in class. URL: http://www.nida.nih.gov/infofacts/treatmeth.html