Language Shift and Language Death

1. LanguageShiftandLanguageDeath Daniel Schlunegger Sascha Kocher Basil Rohrer

2. Overview • Terminology • Somenumbers • Classifications • Types of languagedeath • Suddendeath (linguicide) • Radicaldeath • Gradual death • Bottom-up / Top-down

3. Terminology Schmid, Monika S. LanguageAttrition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004.

4. Terminology • Languagedeath • Whenthe last speakerisdead • Extinctlanguage • A deadlanguage • e.g. AncientGreek, Latin, Old English, ... • May still beused in scienceor as sacredlanguages Crystal, David. "Whatislanguagedeath?" In LanguageDeath, 1-26. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000. "Extinctlanguage." In Wikipedia, thefreeencyclopedia. n.d. Accessed May 6, 2013. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinct_languages.

5. Terminology • Languageshift • Weinreich: "thechangefromthehabitualuse of onelanguage to that of another" (1953, p.68) • Community of speakersshiftsfromonelanguage to another • In mostcasespart of languagedeath • Languageattrition • Loss of proficiency in a languageby a healthyindividual • Aphasia • pathological, braininjury - Crystal, David. "Why do languages die?" In LanguageDeath, 68-90. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. - Schmid, Monika S. LanguageAttrition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004 - Weinreich, Uriel. Languages in Contact, Findings and Problems. New York: Linguistic Circle of New York, 1953

6. Somenumbers • 5000 – 7000 livinglanguages in theworld • Half of themaregoing to disappear in thecourse of thecurrentcentury • Everytwoweeksonelanguage dies out • 96% of all languagesarespokenbyonly 4% of thepopulation - Crystal, David. "Whatislanguagedeath?" In LanguageDeath, 1-26. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000. - Lewis, M. Paul, Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig (eds.), 2013. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Seventeenthedition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International. Online version: http://www.ethnologue.com. (Accessed May 6, 2013)

7. Classifications Fishman‘sScaleforendangeredlanguages AdaptedfromFishman (1991); Černý (2010) • Fishman, Joshua A. ReversingLanguageShiftTheoretical and EmpiricalFoundations of Assistance to ThreatenedLanguages. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 1991 • - Miroslav Černý. “LanguageDeathversusLanguageSurvival: A Global Perspective.” In BeyondGlobalisation: Exploringthe Limits of Globalisation in the Regional Context (conferenceproceedings), 51-56. Ostrava: University of Ostrava Czech Republic, 2010. http://conference.osu.eu/globalization/publ/06-cerny.pdf.

8. Types of language death • Sudden death (linguicide) • Radicaldeath • Gradual death • Bottom-up / Top-downdeath

9. Sudden death (linguicide) - In a shortperiod of time a language becomescompletelyextinct (no occurance of languageshift) • Death of all oralmost all of it‘sspeakers • Because of catastrophicnaturalcauses, genocide, diseases, civil wars • Resulting in a high mortality and decay of thecommunity • e.g. The Black War in Tasmania - Campbell, Lyle, and Martha C. Muntzel. "Thestructuralconsequences of languagedeath." In InvestigatingObsolescence: Studies in LanguageContraction and Death, editedby Nancy C Dorian, 181-196. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989 - Crystal, David. "Why do languages die?" In LanguageDeath, 68-90. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.

10. Radicaldeath • Similar to suddendeath • fast decline of thelanguage • oftenpoliticalrepression and genocide • Loss of language"out of selfdefence, a survivalstrategy" (Campbell & Muntzel, 1989) • e.g. El Salvador (1932): • Insurgents of a revoltwereassumed to be"communist-inspired Indians"Thoseidentifiedwerekilled (10000 – 40000) • Out of fear, peoplestoppedspeakingtheirlanguage (Lenca, Cacaoperaand Pipil) - Campbell, Lyle, and Martha C. Muntzel. "Thestructuralconsequences of languagedeath." In InvestigatingObsolescence: Studies in LanguageContraction and Death, editedby Nancy C Dorian, 181-196. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989 - Crystal, David. "Why do languages die?" In LanguageDeath, 68-90. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. - University of California, San Diego. "SSHL: Latin American ElectionStatistics: El Salvador elections and events 1902-1932." Internet Archive: WaybackMachine. Accessed May 7, 2013. http://web.archive.org/web/20080521064730/http://dodgson.ucsd.edu/las/elsal/1902-1932.html.

11. Gradual death • Gradual languageshifttowardsthe dominant language • "immense pressure (...) to speakthe dominant language" (Crystal, 2000) • Intermediatestage of bilingualism • Young generationbecomesmoreproficient in thenewlanguage and lessproficient in theoldlanguage. • - Campbell, Lyle, and Martha C. Muntzel. "Thestructuralconsequences of languagedeath." In InvestigatingObsolescence: Studies in LanguageContraction and Death, editedby Nancy C Dorian, 181-196. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989 • - Crystal, David. "Why do languages die?" In LanguageDeath, 68-90. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000

12. Bottom-up / Top-down • Bottom up • Languagechangestarts at home, in thefamily and in peer-groups • “latinate pattern” which has been identified inUto-Aztecan “wherethelanguageis lost first in thecontexts of domesticintimacy and last in themostelevatedritualroutines“ (Hill, 1983) • Top down • Languagechangestarts at a higherlevel (e.g. government) • Languagepolicy and laws • Campbell, Lyle, and Martha C. Muntzel. "Thestructuralconsequences of languagedeath." In InvestigatingObsolescence: Studies in LanguageContraction and Death, editedby Nancy C Dorian, 181-196. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989 • Crystal, David. "Why do languages die?" In LanguageDeath, 68-90. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000 • Hill, Jane H. "LanguageDeath in Uto-Aztecan." International Journal of American Linguistics 49, no. 3 (1983): doi:10.1086/465790. • "Languagedeath." In Wikipedia, thefreeencyclopedia. n.d. Accessed May 7, 2013. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_death.

13. To conclude • Thereisneveronlyonesinglefactorresponsibleforlanguagedeath • Factorswhichputpeople in physicaldangeraremainlyresponsiblefor “suddendeath“ and “radicaldeath“ • Factorswhichchangetheculture of thepeoplearemainlyresponsiblefor “gradual death“

14. Language shift / deathandColonisation Overview • Colonialnations • 3 different typesofcolonisation • Diseasestypicalforcolonies • Pidgin • Creoles

15. Colonisation • Which countries werethe 5 biggestcolonisers? • Portugal • France • Spain • Britain • Netherlands

16. 16th centuryColonisation http://www.balagan.org.uk

17. 3 different typesofcolonisation, accordingtoMufwene (2002) • Trade colonies • Exploitationcolonies • Settlement colonies

18. Trade colonies • First colonies, especially at west coast of Africa and Asia • from 15th to 18th century • Languages: anything (trialanderror) Pidgin  Nolanguagesendangered

19. Exploitationcolonies • Manytradecoloniesturnedintoexploitationcolonies • Linguafranca • Pidgin • Urban vernacular Examplesforlinguasfrancas: Swahili in East Africa Wolof in Senegal Lingala in the Congo Hausa in Nigeria (Mufwene, 2002) • British empire: Coloniallanguagepolicy (Brutt-Griffler, 2002)

20. Settlement colonies • Producedmonolingualism, favouringlanguageofcolonisingnation (English, Spanish, Portugiese) • Languagesofslavesandeuropeansfromother countries doomed • Plantationand non-plantationsettlementcolonies • Indigenous languages lost due to diseases /war /relocation /language shift (adaptation)

21. Diseases in settlementcolonies • Smallpox • Measles • Yellow fever • Influenza • Cholera • Syphilis • Tuberculosis • … Over 90% ofindigenouspeoplekilled in theAmericas (Crystal, 2000)

23. 18th centuryColonisation http://www.balagan.org.uk

24. 4th type ofcolonisation • La Réunion and Mauritius bythe French

25. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8waBR2Hpsgk

26. 19th centuryColonisation http://www.balagan.org.uk

27. Pidgin • From Chinese word for business (in Canton, even though no colony) • No native languages, are created (www.icaltefl.com) • Developed out of contacts between colonial and indigenous languages • Colonial language functioned as superstrate language which provided the vocabulary • Lingua franca in trade colonies • Examples: • I no no  I don’t know (Nigeria) • Come chop  Come and eat (Nigeria) • Brah  Brother or pal (Hawaii) • Garans  guaranteed (Hawaii) www.icaltefl.com

28. Creoles • Pidgins learned as native language by next generation • Further development of grammar • Mainly in settlement colonies  passing on indigenous language was disadvantage • Loss of indigenous language (slaves) enabled further development of lingua franca • Still in use in former plantation settlement colonies (Mufwene, 2002)

29. English basedcreoles • List oflanguages : • Afro-Seminole • United States • Aluku • French Guiana • AnguillanCreole • Anguilla • AntiguanCreole • Antigua and Barbuda • TokPisin • Papua New Guinea • BarbadianCreole • Barbados • Bbislama • Vanuatu • BelizeanCreole • Belize http://www.sorosoro.org

30. French basedcreoles http://www.sorosoro.org

31. Closure • ‘Indigenous languages have been eroded not by the European languages but by the indigenous lingua franca.’ Mufwene, 2002 • ‘Language loss has been the most catastrophic in settlement colonies and new languages varieties have emerged additively in trade colonies.’ Mufwene, 2002

32. Sources • J. Brutt-Griffler, 2002. World English: A Study of its Development. http://linguistlist.org/issues/13/13-2165.html (Accessed 4. Mai 2013) • Salikoko S. Mufwene, 2004. Language birth and death. http://humanities.uchicago.edu/faculty/mufwene/publications/languageBirthAndDeath.pdf (Accessed 4. Mai 2013) • Salikoko S. Mufwene, 2002. Colonisation, Globalisation, and the Future of Languages in the Twenty-first Century. http://humanities.uchicago.edu/faculty/mufwene/vl4n2COLONIZATION-GLOBALIZATION.pdf (Accessed 4. Mai 2013) • D. Crystal, 2000. Language death. Cambridge University press. 68 – 76. • J. H. Cossar, 1994. Influence of Travel and Disease. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1708-8305.1994.tb00553.x/pdf (Accessed 5. Mai 2013) • Online sources: • http://www.sorosoro.org/en/languages-around-the-world/creoles-pidgins-and-koines (Accessed 4. Mai 2013) • http://languagesindanger.eu/what-can-be-done/be-informed/ (Accessed 4. Mai 2013) • http://www.balagan.org.uk/war/images/1550_map_colonisation.png (Accessed 4. Mai 2013) • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8waBR2Hpsgk (Accessed 5. Mai 2013) • http://www.sorosoro.org/en/language-planisphere (Accessed 5. Mai 2013) • http://aboutworldlanguages.com/pidgin-languages (Accessed 5. Mai 2013) • http://www.icaltefl.com/index.php/resources/linguistics/385-pidgin (Accessed 5. Mai 2013) • http://humanities.uchicago.edu/faculty/mufwene/pidginCreoleLanguage.html (Accessed 5. Mai 2013)

33. “A language disappears when its speakers disappear or when they shift to speaking another language – most often, a larger language used by a more powerful group.” (UNESCO Website)

34. English

35. Main threat to smaller, local languages • Third most spoken language in the world (native speakers)

36. http://www.ethnologue.com/

37. Spread of English • Colonisation • Possessions outside of the British Isles used as trading posts (the late 16th & early 18th centuries) • Peak: Largest empire in history and, for over a century, biggest global power. (Ferguson, 2004) • 1922: British Empire  458 million people (Ferguson, 2004) • 1/5 of total population • almost 1/4 of Earth’s total land area

38. Spread of English • Colonization The areas of the world that at one time were part of the British Empire. Current British Overseas Territories have their names underlined in red.

39. Spread of English • Colonisation • After the British colonisation, dominant language in • United States • Australia • New Zealand

40. English in the world • 3rd most spoken language in the world by native speakers • Most widely spoken language in the world • About one-fourth of the world's population can communicate to some degree in English.

41. Globalisation • Globalisation typically assumed to be a purely economic phenomenon. • Social exchanges • Cultural exchange • Political exchanges • Technological exchanges

42. According to Crystal (1997): • 85% of the world's international organizations use English as their official language in transnational communication • About 85% of the world’s important film productions and markets use English • 90% of the published academic articles in several academic fields are written in English

43. US as #1 economic power • Technological advancements • Economic Globalisation Factors for the spread of English in the 20th and 21th century • Globalisation of the English language • Simplicity of the English language

44. Simplicity of English • Uses Latin alphabet (simple and short) • No use of diacritics • Verb conjugation is very simple and easy • Almost no Inflections • Analytical language • Use of Periphrases • Receptive Source: Torres, www.omniglot.com

45. Alternatives? • Best alternative would be Chinese if it were written in Latin alphabet • No conjugations or declension, but a very complicated script and tones. • Other examples: • Japanese: has very regular verbs but also a very complicated script • German has many more inflections than English • The major Romance languages, such as French, Spanish and Portuguese, have fewer inflections than most of languages, but their verb conjugation is very complicated • Russian has both complex verb conjugations and numerous noun declensions Source: Torres, www.omniglot.com

46. “It may fairly be said that English is among the easiest languages to speak badly; but the most difficult to use well” C.L. Wren (1960)

47. English as lingua franca • Most English as lingua franca (ELF) interaction are between speakers that do not share the same first language  Contact language • Simplified English as new pidgin? • Globish • Global English, World English

48. World English Seidlhofer(2005): “English is being shaped at least as much by its non-native speakers as by its native speakers. This has led to a somewhat paradoxical situation: on the one hand, for the majority of its users, English is a foreign language, and the vast majority of verbal exchanges in English do not involve any native speakers of the language at all. On the other hand, there is still a tendency for native speakers to be regarded as custodians over what is acceptable usage.”

50. Should we just let English “kill” other languages and all speak English?