Introduction section (research proposal)

1. Introduction section (research proposal) Learning outcomes • State different elements of the introduction • State advice for each element

2. Outline • Opening paragraph • Review of relevant literature • Rationale • Aim • Research question(s)

3. The opening (Kendall et al., 2000) Consider the following: • Rhetorical question • Everyday experience • Analogy/metaphor • Striking statistic/fact • Historical fact (mainly in expository writings) • Lack of previous research

4. Literature review • The literature review is NOT the same for your research proposal as for your final-year project • Purpose of literature review in proposal (Locke et al., 2000): • Justification of research questions and hypotheses • Justification of methods chosen • Not more than that

5. Literature review: organisation, organisation, organisation • Work from a preliminary outline • Include subheadings to maintain organisation and flow • Only include material that is directly relevant to your proposal • A coherent argument logically leads to the proposed study (Rudestam, 2001)

6. Literature review: Organisation (2) • Punch (2000): • Thematic and integrated with research proposal • Develop and use a conceptual framework in order to achieve this • Locke et al. (2000, pp. 68-74, 76-77): • Based on a general research question, followed by a specific hypothesis - if appropriate - through which the question will be answered as a frame of reference • Around ‘concepts’ (statements) that justify the hypothesis/es (or otherwise the research question(s))

7. Organisation (3) (Locke et al., 2000) • Describe the key statements (‘concepts’) that lead to the research question or hypothesis • Describe the supporting research findings already in the literature • Abstract example • Statement 1: A is greater than B • Statement 2: B is greater than C • Therefore, hypothesis: A is greater than C • The structure may be more complex if you have two or more research questions or hypotheses

8. Concrete example (Locke et al., 2000) • Research question: is physical fitness related to cognition in older adults? More precisely, can an aerobic exercise programme increase cognitive processing speed in older adults? • Hypothesis: Maintenance of physical fitness through a physical training programme increases processing speed in older adults • Supporting statements based on research findings lead to the hypothesis

9. Concrete example (2): first-stage outline of statements • Statement 1: reaction time is related to physical fitness • Statement 2: level of cognitive functioning depends on maintenance of aerobic capacity of the brain • Statement 3: the aerobic capacity of brain tissue is affected by physical activity-related regional cerebrovascular changes

10. Concrete example (3.1): second-stage outline of statements • Statement 1: reaction time is related to physical fitness • Comparisons of the reaction time of physically active and inactive people • Note: non-experimental research • Effects of physical training on reaction time in younger people • Note: experimental research, but population is different from that in the proposed research • Reaction time of those in poor physical condition (cardiovascular disease, hypertension) • Note: non-experimental research

11. Concrete example (3.2): second-stage outline of statements • Statement 2: level of cognitive functioning depends on maintenance of aerobic capacity of the brain • Relationship of cognitive function and aerobic capacity of the brain in ageing individuals • Note: non-experimental research • Relationship of neurological measure of brain function, electroencelography (EEG), to cerebral blood flow and cerebral oxygen uptake in older people • Note: non-experimental research

12. Concrete example (3.3): second-stage outline of statements • Statement 3: the aerobic capacity of brain tissue is affected by physical activity-related regional cerebrovascular changes • Increased metabolism in specific regions leads to shifts in cerebral blood flow to those regions • Note: non-experimental research • Regional shifts in blood flow in motor areas of the brain are related to physical movement • Note: non-experimental research • Exercise is related to changes in brain capillarization • Note: non-experimental research

13. Concrete example (4): third-stage outline of statements • Statement 1: reaction time is related to physical fitness • Physically active individuals have faster reaction times than do sedentary individuals (insert supporting references here) • Reaction time is faster after a physical training programme (insert supporting references here) • Cardiovascular-diseased patients have slower reaction time than normal individuals (insert supporting references here) • Statement 2: see Locke et al. (2000) • Statement 3: see Locke et al. (2000)

14. Another concrete example - research questions • What is the best response format for comprehensive online psychometric assessment of the quality of human-computer interaction? • What is the best layout for online questionnaires? • Supporting statements based on research findings lead to the research questions

15. Another concrete example (2) - Statements • [Comprehensive assessment:] There are scales for online assessment of HCI with good psychometric properties, but these have been tested in isolation or small groups of scales have been tested • [Response format:] The more ‘scale steps’ (e.g. using Likert scales), the more reliable measurement • [Response format:] The effect of response format on psychometric quality of ‘off-line’ instruments has been investigated in domains other than HCI and the results are inconclusive • [Layout:] Psychometric assessment aims to capture an initial response and avoid corrections, but whole form (all items on one page) may distract respondents and allows making changes to previous answers • [Layout:] Effect of questionnaire layout has been tested in HCI, but not with psychometric instruments

16. Rationale and aim • Persuade the reader that there is a ‘gap’ in existing knowledge in your area of psychology • Common types of rationale (Field & Hole, 2003): • Test a theory • Replicate (confirm) an existing finding, for example with a slightly different method, different population or both • Extend the findings of previous research, for example by including a new independent variable • Resolve an anomaly from previous research, for example by including an extraneous variable • Aim: follows from and can be combined with rationale

17. Problem statement (quantitative) • One or more research questions and - where appropriate - research hypotheses • Research question must have an explanatory basis, that is based on an understanding of the relations between variables; must follow from the rationale • Research questions without hypotheses are exploratory, more open-ended

18. Problem statement (quantitative) (2) • Hypothesis: • States the relationship among variables • Present tense • Written as a research hypothesis (experimental hypothesis) (H1), not as a null hypothesis (H0) • Free of ambiguity • Should be testable • Example: ‘maintenance of physical fitness through a physical training programme increases processing speed in older adults’ • Relationship between research questions and hypotheses: • One-to-one mapping • One-to-many mapping (see Rudestam, 2001)

19. Problem statement (qualitative) (Rudestam, 2001) • Phenomenological: meaning of an experience or phenomenon • Grounded theory: process • Ethnographic: description of aspects of culture, including interpretation

20. Example of a qualitative problem statement • What strategies do online shoppers follow when shopping on e-shopping sites? • How do online shoppers cope with usability issues? • Methods: concurrent or retrospective think-aloud (data collection) and process tracing (data analysis) (Gilhooly & Green, 1996; Green & Gilhooly, 1996)

21. Another example of a qualitative problem statement • How does an individual experience online shopping from home and cope with the following issues: usability of shopping sites, lack of human communication and lack of physical shopping environment? • Methods: interviews and recorded ‘e-shopping trips’ (data collection) and qualitative analysis methods (e.g. Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis) (data analysis)

22. Problem statement (qnt and ql) • If your proposal uses both quantitative and qualitative methods then consider having separate research questions that are addressed by each of the methods

23. General • Rules for writing the psychology paper (Sternberg, 2003, Chapter 4) and general advice on writing a report (Field & Hole, Chapter 10) • Avoid common misuse of words (Sternberg, 2003, Chapter 5) • Use APA writing style to present information consistently and clearly • Make sure you get it right • APA publication manual (5th edition) • Sternberg (2003, Chapter 6)

24. Summary and conclusion • Make sure you include all the elements of the introduction in your proposal • Follow the advice • However, do not forget to use your creativity (see Tesser, 2001)

25. References • Field, A. & Hole, G. (2003). How to design and report experiments. London: Sage. • Gilhooly, K. & Green, S. (1996). Protocol analysis: Theoretical background. In J. Richardson (Ed.) Handbook of qualitative research methods for psychology and the social sciences (pp. 43-54). Leicester: British Psychological Society. • Green, S. & Gilhooly, K. (1996). Protocol analysis: Practical implementation. In J. Richardson (Ed.) Handbook of qualitative research methods for psychology and the social sciences (pp. 55-74). Leicester: British Psychological Society. • Kendall, C. Silk, J. & Chu, B. (2000). Introducing your research report: Writing the introduction. In R. Sternberg (Ed). Guide to publishing in psychology journals (pp. 41-57). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

26. References • Locke, L., Spirduso, W. & Silverman, S. (2000). Proposals that work : a guide for planning dissertations and grant proposals. London: Sage Punch, K. (2000). Developing effective research proposals. London: Sage. • Rudestam, K. (2001). Surviving your dissertation : a comprehensive guide to content and process (2nd ed.). London : Sage. • Sternberg, R. (2003). The psychologist's companion : a guide to scientific writing for students and researchers (4th ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. • Tesser, A. (2001). Theories and hypotheses. In R. Sternberg (Ed). Guide to publishing in psychology journals (pp. 58-80). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.