Comprehensive Exam Review (cont’d.)

1. Comprehensive Exam Review (cont’d.) Click the LEFT mouse key ONCE to continue

2. Human Growth and Development Part 2 Click the LEFT mouse key ONCE to continue

3. Integrated Approach to Human Growth and Development

4. Magnusson and Cairns proposed the following principles for conceptualizing human growth and development: An individual develops and functions as an integrated organism. The effects of matura-tion, experience, and cultural influences are fused; single aspects do not develop in isolation and cannot be separated from the totality.

5. An individual develops and functions in a continuous and dynamic process of interaction with his/her environment and with other individuals, groups, and the subculture. Individual functioning is determined by (and also influences) the reciprocal interactions among subsystems within the individual (i.e., interactions among perceptual, cognitive, emotional, and physiological subsystems over time).

6. Novel or unique patterns of individual func-tioning arise during individual development. Differences in rate of development of individual components may produce major differences in the organization and configuration of psychological functions.

7. Patterns of psychological functioning are sensitive to the conditions under which they were developed. Therefore, patterns cannot be attributed solely to the structural organization of subsystems within the individual. Social and cognitive development follow organized patterns despite continuous change.

8. Theories of human growth and development, all based on models of healthy human functioning, are presented next: Erikson’s epigenetic theory Maslow’s need hierarchy Loevinger’s stages of ego development Jahoda’s characteristics of mental health Havighurst’s developmental tasks Social learning theories Piaget’s theory of cognitive development

9. Perry’s model of cognitive development for college-age students Kohlberg’s theory of moral development Gilligan’s theory of women’s moral development Theories of racial identity development Super’s theory of career development Adult development and transitions Family development

10. Erik H. Erikson Erikson focused on psychosocial development that covered the lifespan and was applicable across cultures, although he was more successful at the former. Erikson viewed the life cycle as an eight stage developmental staircase in which each step must be mastered before the individual could move on effectively to the next step.

11. Erikson viewed the eight steps as provided by society to help the person move through the life cycle within the society. Erikson’s eight stages represent successive age periods, each of which contains a critical issue with which the individual must contend. Erikson identified the successful and unsuccessful resolution of each stage and the value achieved through successful resolution of each stage.

12. Erikson’s Eight Stages: Life Crisis Success Stage Successful Unsuccessful Value Infancy Trust vs Mistrust Hope Toddler Autonomy vs Shame Will Preschool Initiative vs Guilt Purpose Elem Sch Industry vs Inferiority Competence Adoles. Identity vs Role Confusion Fidelity Young Adult Intimacy vs Isolation Love Middle Adult Generativity vs Stagnation Care Late Adult Integrity vs Despair Wisdom

13. Abraham H. Maslow Maslow believed that successful development meant meeting effectively a series of needs arranged in a hierarchy. Needs lower in the hierarchy were considered more potent. Maslow proposed that lower order needs must be fulfilled effectively before the person could move on to attempt to fulfill higher order needs.

14. Most POTENCY Least Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy: Aesthetic Cognitive Self-actualization Esteem Belongingness and love Safety Physiological

15. Maslow studied “self-actualized” people and found them to: be realistically oriented be accepting of themselves and others be spontaneous be problem-, rather than self-, centered have a need for privacy be autonomous and independent have a fresh, nonstereotypical appreci- ation of things in their environment have spiritual experiences identify with humanity

16. Self-actualized people continued have deep emotional relationships with a few specially loved people hold democratic values not confuse means with ends have philosophical, non-hostile sense of humor be highly creative resist full conformity to the culture

17. Jane Loevinger Loevinger proposed four “streams” of human development: physical, drive, intellectual, and ego development. Loevinger focused most of her work on three aspects of ego development: impulse control and character development, interpersonal style, and conscious preoccupations.

18. Loevinger proposed a seven-stage ego development sequence: 1. Presocial/Symbiotic, wherein the issue is distinction between the self and nonself. In the Presocial substage, animate and inanimate parts of the environment are not distinguished. In the Symbiotic substage, mother is distinguished from the environment but the self is not distinguished from the mother.

19. 2. Impulsive, in which the child distinguishes separate existence from the mother by exercise of will. Impulse control is lacking. Interper-sonal style is exploitive and dependent. There is preoccupation with sexual and aggressive drives. 3. Opportunistic, in which rules are obeyed in anticipation of immediate advantage. Morality is based in expediency. Interpersonal relations are manipulative. There is preoccupation with controlling others.

20. 4. Conformist, in which rules are partially internalized. The sanction for transgression is shame. Interpersonal relationships are superficially reciprocal. There is a preoccupation with appearance, reputation, and material possessions. 5. Conscientious, in which morality is internalized and controlled by moral imperatives. The sanction for transgression is guilt. Interpersonal relationships are intense and responsible. There is preoccupation with inner feelings and achievements.

21. 6. Autonomous, in which impulse control is no longer problematic. Moral issues include coping with inner conflict and tolerating differences. Interpersonal relationships show concern for maintaining autonomy. There is preoccupation with role definition and self-fulfillment. 7. Integrated, in which conflicts are reconciled and unattainable goals renounced. Interpersonal relationships cherish individuality. There is preoccupation with achievement of an integrated identity.

22. In Loevinger’s model, people achieve higher levels by using more adaptive defense mechanisms. Few people achieve the last two stages, but the model offers an ideal to strive for.

23. Marie Jahoda Jahoda defined adult positive mental health as persons having: positive attitudes toward self self-actualization integrated psychological functioning personal autonomy or independence adequate perception of reality mastery over personal environment.

24. Robert J. Havighurst Havighurst proposed a six-stage model of developmental tasks to be mastered in order to achieve healthy and effective growth and development. Havighurst proposed that specific tasks had to be learned at each stage and, therefore, also had to be taught effectively to each person at the appropriate time in her or his life.

25. For example, the tasks for Havighurst’s first developmental stage, Infancy and Early Childhood (about ages 0 - 6), include: Learning to walk Learning to eat solid food Learning to talk Learning to control elimination of bodily wastes Learning sex differences and sexual modesty Forming concepts and learning language to describe physical and social reality

26. Infancy and Early Childhood Tasks continued Getting ready to read Learning to distinguish right and wrong and beginning to develop a conscience Havighurst’s other stages include: Middle Childhood, about ages 6 - 12 Adolescence, about ages 12 - 18 Early Adulthood, about ages 18 - 30 Middle Age, about ages 30 - 60 Later Maturity, beyond age 60

27. Social Learning Theories Social learning theories hold that people develop patterns of behavior by observing and interacting with other people. As with other learning theories, social learning theories hold that some behaviors are reinforced and thus are continued (learned), and some are not reinforced and tend to be extinguished.

28. The differentiating characteristic of social learning theories is the premise that learning can be vicarious (i.e., achieved by observing the behaviors of others). If the observed behavior of a “model” results in what is perceived to be a positive reinforcement, the person is likely to attempt to imitate the behavior. The greater the person’s identification with the model, the more likely the attempt at imitative behavior.

29. Bandura proposed a five-step model for learning modeled behavior: 1. Paying attention to the model 2. Coding the observed (behavior) information 3. Retaining the coded information in memory 4. Carrying out the modeled behavior 5. Maintaining motivation to engage in the behavior

30. Applications of social learning theories are typically most useful for helping persons to develop new skills and behavior patterns. Social learning theories are particularly useful for counseling to the extent that counseling is viewed as a psychoeducational process.

31. Jean Piaget Piaget was particularly concerned with cognitive development, focusing on the individual’s capacities to accommodate to external reality, to incorporate information about that process into intellectual structures, and to organize those structures into schema that would permit the individual to solve problems.

32. Piaget held that new experiences were either interpreted in terms of existing cognitive schema (i.e., assimilation) or caused existing schema to be modified to incorporate the new information (i.e., accommodation). Piaget proposed that cognitive development occurs across four sequential, age-related stages; each of which builds on accomplish-ments from the preceding stage.

33. In the Sensory-Motor stage, ages birth - 2, the person learns to make adaptive responses to the environmental stimuli. In the Preoperational Thought stage, ages 2 - 6, the person develops the ability to conceptualize the environment, but the interpretation is self-centered and not yet realistic, inclusive, logical, or critical.

34. In the Concrete Operations stage, ages 6 - 11, the person develops an organized system of logical categories for use in conceptualizing and coping with the present environment. In the period of Formal Operations, ages 11 - 15, the person develops the capacity to formulate hypotheses and to test predictions about future situations using logic, abstract thinking, and the capacity to consider alternatives and possible consequences.

35. William Perry Perry developed a sequential, nine-stage (position) model of cognitive development specifically applicable to college students. Perry’s model essentially continues from where Piaget’s conceptualizations stopped (i.e., during late adolescence). The nine positions in Perry’s model are grouped into four levels.

36. Level I: Dualism, in which the person views the world in terms of absolute right or wrong; the learner’s role is to receive “truth,” and thus the learner may encounter difficulty with conflicting viewpoints. Position 1: The world is viewed in polar, absolute terms. Position 2: Diversity of opinion is perceived, but rejected as confusion among unqualified authorities.

37. Level II: Multiplicity, in which the person acknowledges the possibility of multiple viewpoints, but lacks criteria to evaluate the merits of coexisting, and possibly conflicting, viewpoints. Position 3: Diversity and uncertainty are viewed as legitimate, but temporary. Position 4: Uncertainty is perceived as extensive, and knowledge is viewed as just personal opinion.

38. Level III: Relativism, in which the person views knowledge as relative and not connected with the concepts of truth or rightness; truth emerges from both personal experience and external argument. Position 5: Knowledge and values are viewed as relativistic and contextual. Position 6: The person accepts the need to establish a personal orientation in a relativistic world by making some sort of commitment.

39. Level IV: Commitment in Relativism, in which the person accepts responsibility and commits to an identity in regard to both an internal value system and external choices, such as career or life partner. Position 7: Initial commitments are made. Position 8: Implications of commitments are experienced and issues of responsibility are explored. Position 9: Identity is affirmed and commitment is expressed through lifestyle and personal values.

40. Lawrence Kohlberg Kohlberg was concerned with moral development, which he viewed as existing over three sequential developmental levels, each having two stages. The first developmental level generally occurs during childhood, while the last two generally occur during adolescence or adulthood, although not all persons achieve the upper level.

41. Level I: Preconventional Morality, in which consequences to the self guide moral behavior. Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation, in which the person fears being caught and the subsequent punishment; severity of punishment determines badness of the act. Stage 2: Instrumental Relativist Orientation, in which rules are followed to satisfy personal needs; the only obligatory behavior is that which serves the person.

42. Level II: Conventional Morality, in which concern for meeting socially-defined expectations guides moral behavior. Stage 3: Interpersonal Concordance Orientation, in which behavior is conducted to please and gain approval from others. Stage 4: Authority, Law, and Duty Orientation, in which rules are viewed as necessary to maintain social order, and therefore must be obeyed for the common good.

43. Level III: Postconventional Morality, in which behavior is guided by self-imposed commitment to moral principles. Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation, in which moral principles are examined and agreed upon by society as a whole but can be changed by consensus. Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles Orientation, in which behavior is guided by self-chosen ethical principles that place high value on human life, equality, and dignity.

44. Carol Gilligan Gilligan offered a theory of moral development for females as an alternative to Kohlberg’s, which she determined was applicable primarily to males. Gilligan suggested that Kohlberg’s theory was less appropriate for females because male development is focused on separation and individuation, whereas female development is focused on connections and relationships.

45. Gilligan also suggested that males base their morality on principles of justice and individual rights, whereas females base their morality on principles of care-giving and responsibility for self and others. Gilligan proposed that female moral development occurred across a sequence of three levels, with an identified transition between levels.

46. Level I: Orientation to Individual Survival, in which the focus is on the self and survival. Moral considerations arise only when needs are in conflict. First Transition: From Selfishness to Responsibility, in which the self is defined in terms of connections with others.

47. Level II: Goodness as Self-Sacrifice, in which the view of women as caretakers becomes predominant. Moral judgments are defined from social norms, self-sacrifice is viewed as goodness, and need for approval is joined with desire to take care of others. Second Transition: From Goodness to Truth, in which there is striving to encompass the needs of both self and others, intention and consequences of action are viewed as important, and increased attention is given to personal responsibility.

48. Level III: The Morality of Nonviolence, in which conflicts between selfishness and responsibility are resolved by adopting principles of not hurting self or others. In Level III, caregiving is viewed as a self-chosen universal moral obligation, and therefore the person takes responsibility for choices made.

49. This concludes Part 2 of the presentation on HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT