Introduction to Sociology

1. Introduction to Sociology Critical Theory and Structural-Functional Theory

2. Critical Theory (Frankfurt School)

3. Critical Theory • The purpose of critical theory is to “liberate human beings from the circumstances that enslave them.” (Horkheimer) • It is a combination of social sciences (sociology) and philosophy (among other disciplines) viewing all of these as necessarily integrated. • Critical Theory (Formal) – a school of sociological and philosophical thought that is the product of several thinkers who comprised the ‘Frankfurt School’ in the mid 20th century. The main thinkers were: Max Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno, Herbert Marcuse, and Walter Benjamin. Their most famous modern interpreter is Jürgen Habermas. • Critical Theory (Informal) – forms of criticism based off of the Frankfurt School’s general outlook, but branching out into various particular fields, primarily marginalized groups, e.g., feminist theory

4. Critical Theory Method • Explanatory – defining what is wrong in a particular case. • Practical – Identifying the actors who change the circumstances (for better and for worse). • Normative – Providing clear norms for critique of the dominating circumstances.

5. Genealogy • Critical Theory is substantively indebted to Max Weber and Karl Marx, and thus identifies capitalism as a source of corruption in the modern world. • The goal is to free ourselves from forms of domination that make us into tools of market systems—and thereby recovering authentic and substantive values. • The transformation of substantive values into “markets” is viewed as a diminishment and compromise of any general value (e.g., art, morals, etc.) • Capitalism reflects the Enlightenment’s transformation of reason in general into Instrumental Reason – a means-end conception of what is logical. In this respect, critical theory seeks to expose the modern irrationality of (instrumental) reason. • The primary tool against the total corruption of capitalist markets is democracy with respect to our ability to emancipate ourselves from forms of domination and make political moves against corruptive forces.

6. Structural-Functional Theory

7. Structural-Functionalism Main Idea: The way in which a society is constituted by practically necessary pieces that emerge and evolve to fit a need and find equilibrium in the system. Structural-Functionalists view society as analogous to a physical body: it contains lots of separate pieces that emerge out of a need and function together to form a whole. Society is made of structures Each structure has a function

8. Theory of Action • Functionalism posits that in any given situation actors are presented with a set of “variables” (binary values)—sometimes consciously sometimes subconsciously—that they must navigate in order to make decisions. • Gratification – Discipline • The tension between desire and duty • Private – Collective • The tension between what is good for “me” and what is best for everyone • Universal – Particular • The tension between what is always the case and the particulars that make up each situation • Achievements – Ascription • The tension between the person we already are and the person we claim or want to be • Specificity – Diffuseness • The tension between how wide or narrow the effects of our actions are

9. Systems of Culture • Each social structure falls under one of three major systems: • Cultural Systems – the symbols that form the mode of expression • Personality Systems – the elements necessary for individual identity • Social Systems – the modes of interaction among persons • Each system interacts with each other in particular ways: • Cultural + Personality = Internalization • Persons craft their identity through internalizing the values of the culture in which they function • Personality + Social = Socialization • Persons become integrated into society through the roles they play • Cultural + Social = Social Institutions • The general culture determines the framework for the various and necessary institutions that will comprise a society (libraries, hospitals, etc.)