Introduction to Community Psychology: Research and Action in Communities

1. Introduction to Community Psychology: Research and Action in Communities Prof. Douglas D. Perkins, Ph.D. with Nikolay Mihaylov, M.A. Program in Community Research & Action Dept. of Human & Organizational Development Peabody College, Vanderbilt University Nashville, Tennessee, USA d.perkins@vanderbilt.edu My homepage: https://my.vanderbilt.edu/perkins/ 

2. U.S.A. *NYU *Philadelphia: Swarthmore College & Temple U. • I was born in Washington, DC • I attended Swarthmore College near Philadelphia, Pennsylvania • My Masters & Ph.D. are in Community Psychology from New York University in New York City • My first academic job was in a Department of Criminal Justice at Temple University in Philadelphia • In 1989, I moved to a faculty position in Family, Consumer & Community Studies and in Psychology at the University of Utah in Salt Lake City • My current position, since 2000, is in Community Research & Action in the Department of Human & Organizational Development at Peabody College of Education & Human Development, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee. Washington, DC * *U. of Utah *Vanderbilt U. (Nashvillle, Tennessee)

3. SUMMARY • I will introduce & define the field of Community Psychology (CP) • I will then explain historically why it developed as psychologists were called on to help solve problems outside of clinics & institutions in communities, schools, organizations, and society • I will present some of CP’s major concepts, theories and areas & types of application • I will highlight education-based youth development programs as one major area of CP research, innovation & application • I will conclude by briefly discussing the international growth of CP, & let’s discuss its potential in Bulgaria. • For a Bulgarian presentation of community psychology, see: • Михайлов, Н. (2011). Психология отвъд индивида и проблема: Обзор на общностната психология като изследователска и приложна област и нейните възможности в България. Българско списание по психология, 3/4/2001, 393-398. Достъпно на http://psychological.files.wordpress.com/2011/11/sbornik-papers.pdf

4. Psychology is mainly focused at the individual level, but through Community Psychology, it is very useful for interventions at many other levels: • Examples: • Prevention programs & health promotion uses psychology to help children & families in poor communities, schools, & the whole society. • Mutual aid groups & existing social support networks help groups & families. • Organizational development & creation of new, alternative settings addresses problems of institutions. • Community needs & assets assessment, community development, policy analysis, & social action help to improve villages, neighborhoods, cities & society.

5. What is the definition of “COMMUNITY”? • “A group of people who interact and share certain things as a group…in which intent, belief, resources, preferences, needs, risks and a number of other conditions may be present and common, affecting the identity of the participants and their degree of adhesion.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community • "Community is a social grouping (e.g., a nurturing family, a nourishing church, a supportive peer group or neighborhood, a compassionate school, a hospice, a reflective-generative professional relationship) that promotes human development.“(In Dokecki, P. R. (1996). The tragicomic professional: Basic considerations for ethical reflective-generative practice, p.134) • Community as either locality-based [geographic] or relational [shared interest] • As a former Socialist country, Bulgaria is arguably a more communal society than the U.S., which makes CP a good fit for this country

6. Definitions of Community Psychology: • “the psychological study & solution of community, social & mental health problems” OR • “the applied study of the relationship between social systems & individual well‑being in community context”

7. Initial Themes of Community Psychology • Contexts of human welfare • Starting with problems of institutions • Social justice: to help those who need the most help, including the powerless & victims of oppression in all its forms

8. Tenets or Themes of Community Psychology, continued: • Synergy of: theory research action • an ‘action’orientation, i.e. social innovation, change, & evaluation. • "real world" utility of applied research (e.g., program or policy evaluations) in community and organizational settings, not "ivory tower" laboratory • “praxis”: the process of translating an intellectual idea, theory, or lesson into the lived reality of practice, action, and experience.

9. More Themes of Community Psychology: • 1st-order change is just change in part of a system (e.g., individual change) CP is more concerned with: • 2nd-order change: fundamental system-level change (e.g., in its structure or goals) • “3rd-order change”? (Bess): transformative change in values & identity

10. Microsystem & Mesosystem (see below) • Exosystem: community environment • Macrosystem: societal level (politics, economics, mass culture) Community Psychology helps you see the world ecologically (as an interconnected system; Bronfenbrenner, 1996) • Ontogenetic/Demo-system: individual level of development (primary focus of traditional psychology) • Microsystem: immediate social environment (family, classroom, peer group); • Mesosystem: relational links between microsystems (eg, work influence on personal life) • Other emphases of ecological theory: • person-environment fit: change the setting, or find right setting, to fit the person • multiple levels of analysis & intervention • dynamic, naturalistic process

11. Ecological Research Methods (Example: Perkins, D.D., & Taylor, R.B. (1996). Ecological assessments of community disorder: Their relationship to fear of crime and theoretical implications. American Journal of Community Psychology, 24, 63-107. (Reprinted in Revenson et al. (Eds.)(2002), Ecological research to promote social change: Methodological advances from community psychology. (pp. 127-170). New York, NY: Kluwer Academic/Plenum.): 1. Multiple measures and “mixed” (quantitative & qualitative) methods (sources of data) to cross-validate/triangulate: • Direct (systematic or participatory) observation: Block Environmental Inventory • Resident (or Organization Member or Leader) Survey • Open-ended or semi-structured interviews • Content analysis (e.g., of crime-related media stories) • Archival data (e.g., organizational records, police crime reports) • Census and other large sample surveys 2. Focused on Context at Multiple Levels: • Individual • Individual Relative to Group • Aggregate + truly contextual units (Organization, Community) • Multilevel Analysis (eg, HLM, Contextual Analysis, GIS) 3. Over Time: • Longitudinal designs, time series analysis

12. Social behavior must be understood ecologically (how we actually & naturally live): in organic/systemic groups, organizations, communities... Branch of scienceLevel of analysis Economics/Poli.Sci. C P states, nations, cities O S institutions Sociology/Anthropology M Y cultures/ethnic groups M C communities, U H organizations, N O groups: families, households Traditional Psychology I L events, social interactions (incl. Social Psych.) T O individuals Y G Biology/Chemistry/Physics Y organs, cells, molecules, atoms  Beware problems of: "reductionism" (bias toward most simple & scientifically controlled answer) & "ecological fallacy” (generalizing about one level based on data at another level)

13. More Themes of Community Psychology: • CP challenges traditional modes of thought and authority: healthy skepticism of established “truths”, the powerful, & “experts”. • CP values the phenomenological “expertise” of nonprofessionals & so approaches helping through collaboration, not as “the expert with all the answers”

14. Values of Community Psychology: • CP acknowledges our humanity & thus our values: • Positivism is dishonest in pretending to be value-free (all humans, including scientists, have & act on their values) • CP values & promotes individual, community & cultural: • diversity • equality • human rights • justice • freedom • dignity

15. 4 Key Community Psychology Values/Concepts: “SPEC”: Strengths Prevention Empowerment Changing Community Conditions Strengths • Emphasizes developing people's & communities' strengths, assets, & competencies rather than labeling, blaming, & stigmatizing individuals’ weaknesses, handicaps, pathology • Limitations/critique of “medical model”; borrows more from public health promotion and human & community development

16. 4 Key Community Psychology Concepts, continued: “SPEC”: Strengths, Prevention, Empowerment, Changing Community Conditions Prevention • CP intervenes earlier in the problem development process to be both more effective & more efficient: • crisis intervention -> early detection & intervention -> primary prevention • More on prevention in a minute

17. 4 Key Community Psychology Concepts, continued: “SPEC”: Strengths, Prevention, Empowerment, Changing Community Conditions Empowerment • “voice & choice” • people participating in and taking control over the institutions that affect their lives; professionals & scientists as partners or collaborators, not experts. [More on Empowerment in a minute]

18. 4 Key Community Psychology Concepts, continued: “SPEC”: Strengths, Prevention, Empowerment, Changing Community Conditions Changing Community Conditions • CP gets at root causes of problems by addressing the underlying community conditions (again, rather than traditional psychology’s tendency to always identify the source of problems within individuals, their genes, brain patterns, child-rearing, cognitions, psychopathology, or behavior) • Later, I will apply these ideas, especially prevention & a focus on community environments, in a comprehensive stress & intervention guiding model for CP

19. Empowerment is 1 of 4 Dimensions of Individual-level Social Capital:Formal & Informal Community Cognitions& Behaviors (from Perkins & Long, 2002) Let us briefly consider each of the 4 concepts…

20. sense of community: • a widely valued indicator of quality of community life • a consistent catalyst for both behavioral dimensions of social capital: organized participation & informal neighboring • linked with empowerment in both organizations & neighborhoods Other correlates: • community satisfaction, local friendships, & informal social control • residential social climate & well-being • investment in one’s home • the physical condition of one’s block • more life satisfaction & less loneliness • less fear of crime • common land, green space, & town planning (New Urbanism) • organization & activities of schools • places to congregate outside of school • possibly: life-long commitments to community & community service Any possible downside to sense of community?

21. Neighboring behavior (informal behavior cell of Figure) • informal mutual assistance: instrumental & informational help we provide, or get from, other community members--e.g., watching a neighbor’s house or child, loaning some food or a tool, sharing information, social interaction, etc. • facilitates forming voluntary associations • related to sense of community & other bonding variables (communitarianism & community satisfaction) • strongest single predictor of participation in community organizations across multiple cities & studies • especially important for disenfranchised [Prezza et al. (2001) found that women & those w/ more children & less education rely more on neighboring relationships.]

22. Citizen participation: formal behavioral dimension in 2X2 model • participants in community councils, block, neighborhood, tenant or homeowner associations, & other local resident groups have more: • empowerment • sense of community • neighboring • community satisfaction & other positive community attachments & organizational bridging activities • community organizations address a variety of local needs: • planning & traffic issues • park cleanups & community gardens • youth & recreation programs & block parties • crime prevention

23. Why are so many social change movements started & often led by students & other young people? • Early childhood is about learning what IS. • Middle childhood is about also learning what OUGHT to be. • Late adolescence is about also learning what CAN be and trying to make that happen. (Adolescence is a developmental stage of growing independence and challenging authority.) • youth civic engagement has both short- & long-term benefits for youth and for society: • Higher youth psychological well-being, • Higher youth academic achievement, • Contributions to the social & political fabric of the country, including the promotion of civil society

24. Collective efficacy (or empowerment; formal-cognition cell of 2X2 model)Perkins (2010). Empowerment. In R.A. Couto (Ed.), Political and Civic Leadership Empowerment defined: • “trust” or belief in the effectiveness of organized community action; • Or a process by which people gain control over their lives, democratic participation in the life of their community (Rappaport, 1987), and a critical understanding of their environment (Zimmerman, 1992). • Must mean more than the individual psychological constructs with which it is sometimes compared or confused (e.g., self‑esteem, self‑efficacy, competency, locus of control) • I.E., it is at core a collective construct • Role of “mediating structures” in empowerment (Berger & Neuhaus, 1977)

25. Community Psychology as a “Paradigm Shift” • "paradigm": theoretical or methodological model, or a conventionally accepted way of looking at, understanding, or doing things • "paradigm shifts" caused by faith, values, & politics, esp. in social sciences & human services • Scientific progress is not linear (Kuhn):

26. The "Progressive" View of The History of Mental Health Care • 4 Revolutions in MH Care --> (population encompassed) • Pinel, Dix & "Moral Treatment" (1800) -------> (psychotics) • Freud & insanity continuum (1900) ---------> (neurotics) • Community MH Centers (1963) --> (victims of social pathology) • Milestone Primary Prevention (1970s, 1980s) ----> (everyone)

27. The "Revisionist" View of the History of Mental Health Care • Revisionist history shows inconsistent progress & a more cyclical pattern of reform & concern over environmental causes (e.g., during settlement house movement) alternate with periods of conservative retrenchment & intra-psychic or moralistic determinism (Levine & Levine, 1970), i.e., approach to solving social & mental health problems related to political climate of the times

28. The "Revisionist" View of the History of Mental Health Care #2 • Limited effectiveness of many therapies • Poor are more likely to receive "physical" treatments & neglect(Grobb, 1973; Hollingshead & Redlich, 1958) • cyclical patterns in history: periods of genetic, intra-psychic &/or cultural determinism & tendency to "oversell" new treatments & policies as panaceas (or cure‑all "fads") • poor & "deviant" removed from society in 1600s, 1800s, 1950s & today--for whose "protection"? (Erikson, 1966: Wayward Puritans)

29. For 400 years, "deviants” have been removed from society, most w/ little or no treatment (even medication): # of mentally ill inmates in U.S. prisons & jails > quadrupled 1998-2006 to 1.25 million! Rate of mental disorders is 5 X greater in prison (>56% [73% for women] vs. 11% for gen. adult population); seriously mentally ill almost 10 X more likely to be in prison than hospital! USA incarcerate highest % of population in world.

30. Conclusions about the history of Mental Health Care • social change made old approaches to mental health care inadequate • ideology determined treatment laws • economic & political concerns stopped humane efforts & led to "warehousing" • legal, economic, & political factors continue to shape the changes in mental health care • From both historical perspectives (Progressive & Revisionist), the history of mental health care points to need for prevention & more humane treatment & "empowerment" of the broadest variety of disadvantaged populations.

31. One possible guiding framework for CP: A model of the process whereby psychosocial stress induces psychopathology and some conceptions of how to counteract this process (Dohrenwend, 1978). Community & Organizational Development Psycho- Pathology Political Action Situation In Environment Stressful Life Event Psychological Growth Situational Mediators, Material Supports or Handicaps, Social Supports or Handicaps Transient Stress Reaction No Substantial Permanent Psychological Change Psychological Mediators, Aspirations and Values, Coping Abilities/Disabilities Psychological Characteristics of Person in Event Individual Skill Training General Education & Socialization Corrective Therapies Crisis Intervention

32. Classroom exercise (discuss in pairs): • Describe a major or minor stressful life event you have experienced [anything you don’t mind discussing]. • What were the personal factors [personality, resilience, skills, knowledge, habits, needs, etc.] that led to the event or helped or hindered your stress response? • What were the environmental factors [social/people, physical, cultural, political, economic…] that caused the stress &/or added to it? • What was the outcome of the event and its negative &/or positive impact on you? Opportunities for Intervention Based on Above & Dohrenwend model: • Did you receive any “crisis intervention” of any kind? Did/would it help? • How could you have coped with, or adapted to, the stress psychologically or behaviorally? • What kinds of social or material supports might have helped you cope with the stress situation? Were they available to you? • Do you have any personal psychological characteristics that increased the likelihood of the stressful event? What kind of intervention could address those characteristics to prevent the event? • What situation in the environment increased the risk of the stressful event? How could that have been prevented?

33. Types or Levels of Prevention (Caplan; Gofrit et al) • Primary Prevention: intervention given to an entire population when they are not in a condition of known need or distress • water fluoridation, vaccinations • What are some examples of primary prevention of mental or social problems? -improvements in schools? changes in media “messages”? -what else?

34. Secondary Prevention: • Early identification & intervention: given to populations showing early signs of difficulty • at risk for developing more serious problems • counseling those showing conflict or distress (school, work, academic achievement, etc.) • "early intervention" can be taken 2 ways: (1) early in the development of the disorder or (2) early in the lifespan (childhood or even pre- & peri-natal) • Examples: • Early detection & prevention of school adjustment problems in kindergarten-4th graders (Cowen et al, 1979) • Bullying interventions for both bullies & victims (Nation, 2007)

35. Tertiary Prevention: • rehabilitation for those who have a disorder, with the intention of limiting the disability caused by the disorder, reducing its intensity and duration, or the likelihood of a relapse • Tertiary also helps prevent problems for those who provide support for or interact regularly with the targets of the intervention • Examples? - intensive “wrap-around” services & case management for homeless - professional home visits to support care givers of people w/ serious mental illness • IS tertiary “prevention” really prevention?

36. Slightly different framework emphasizing primary & early secondary prevention(Institute of Medicine; Mrazek & Haggerty, 1994) • “community wide” or Universal Prevention: good for everyone, given to populations that are not in distress (the most “primary” form) • "milestone" (at critical developmental or life transition points) or Selective Preventive Measures: for people at above average risk (primary, but identification/selection moves it closer to 2ndary) • Indicated Preventive Measures: given to “high risk” individuals (often equated w/ 2ndary, but depends: if “high risk” is based just on env. factors: primary; if based on actual diagnosis or problem behavior: 2ndary)

37. Prevention across the lifespan • Programs for early childhood: Parenting (e.g., "Baby your baby," "Success by 6") and problem-solving • Programs for adolescents: Resistance skills (e.g., Life Skills Training to prevent smoking; improving social climate of schools for bullying prevention) • Programs for adults: Social support (eg, Widow-to-Widow or home visitation for parents of schizophrenics-- see mutual aid/self-help groups)

38. “Compensatory” Preschool Ed. & Enrichment for Disadvantaged Low-income Children • Major example: Project Head Start • Started in 1965; • spread to almost all poor communities in USA; • 1 of biggest & longest social programs • Mission statement: "Head Start promotes school preparation by enhancing the social & cognitive development of children through the provision of educational, health, nutritional, social & other services.” • Head Start improves children’s self esteem, confidence, maturity, and social adjustment. • Some programs provide free medical & dental care & nutrition

39. Many Head Start programs have shown academic results that are limited or fade over time.But high-quality programs have shown strong, robust, & lasting results [Long-term Follow-up Evaluation of Perry Preschool Head Start, Ypsilanti,Michigan]: Those who received preschool training more likely to: • graduate from high school, • obtain post-secondary academic or vocational training, • be employed, • earn higher wages, • avoid welfare assistance, • avoid criminal arrest, & • avoid teenage pregnancy. Cost-efficiency: Net savings to society: $25,000 per child (in 1984). Economic benefit-to-cost ratio: $7 saved for every $1 spent.

40. The “Positive Youth Development” Approach To Prevention “Generally speaking, positive youth development encompasses all our hopes & aspirations for a nation of healthy, happy, & competent adolescents on their way to productive & satisfying adulthoods” (Roth & Brooks-Gunn, 2003, p. 170). Research shows “the same individual, family, school, and community factors often predict both positive and negative outcomes for youth. Such factors as developing strong bonds with healthy adults and maintaining regular involvement in positive activities not only create a positive developmental pathway, but can prevent the occurrence of problems.” (Catalano et al, 2004, p. 98) “In addition to enhancing children’s competencies, many school-based (Social, and Emotional Learning) programs focus on topics such as substance-abuse prevention, violence prevention, sexuality, health, and character education. Some also foster safe, caring, and supportive learning environments that build strong student attachment to school and motivation to learn, factors strongly associated with academic success” (Weissberg & O'Brien, 2004, p. 89).

41. The 5 (or 6?) ”Cs” of PYD (Lerner et al, 2000) “Lerner et al summarize the ingredients of positive youth development into the five Cs: (a) competence in academic, social, & vocational areas; (b) confidence or a positive self-identity; (c) connections to community, family, & peers; (d) character or positive values, integrity, & moral commitment; (e) caring & compassion. [Many researchers have added a critical “6th C” of PYD: (f) contribution to family, community, & civil society] Resources in families, schools, communities, & the nation envelop youth with the experiences & supports they need to develop these qualities. The Search Institute delineated 40 internal & external assets... The 4 categories grouping the 20 external supports…summarize the fundamental resources for positive development: support, empowerment, boundaries & expectations, & constructive use of time. Put another way, youth need access to safe places, challenging experiences, & caring people on a daily basis” (Roth & Brooks-Gunn, 2003, pp. 170-1)

42. What works in school-based social and emotional learning programs for positive youth development “Ideally, programming to foster social and emotional competencies should begin in preschool and continue through high school. Recently, the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL) identified a core set of 5 teachable competencies that provide a foundation for effective development: 1. Self-awareness: knowing what we are feeling and thinking; having a realistic assessment of our own abilities and a well-grounded sense of self-confidence; 2. Social awareness: understanding what others are feeling and thinking; appreciating and interacting positively with diverse groups; 3. Self-management: handling our emotions so they facilitate rather than interfere with task achievement; setting and accomplishing goals; persevering in the face of setbacks and frustrations; 4. Relationship skills: establishing and maintaining healthy and rewarding relationships based on clear communication, cooperation, resistance to inappropriate social pressure, negotiating solutions to conflict, and seeking help when needed; and 5. Responsible decision making: making choices based on an accurate consideration of all relevant factors and the likely consequences of alternative courses of action, respecting others, and taking responsibility for one’s decisions” (Weissberg & O'Brien, 2004, p. 89).

43. ? ? See any pattern? Irony? Community Psychology developed first & most fully in those countries that needed it least: Here are the countries in historical order where CP developed [or is beginning to]:

44. THANK YOU! QUESTIONS? KEY SOURCES: Online Global Journal of Community Psychology Practice (2010): http://www.gjcpp.org/en/ Catalano, Richard F., Berglund, M. Lisa, Ryan, Jean A. M., Lonczak, Heather S., & Hawkins, J. David. (2004). Positive Youth Development in the United States: Research Findings on Evaluations of Positive Youth Development Programs. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 591(Jan), 98-124. Lerner, R.M., et al. (2005). Positive youth development, participation in community youth development programs, and community contributions of fifth-grade adolescents: findings from the first wave of the 4-h study of positive youth development. Journal of Early Adolescence, 25(1), 17-71. Miller, R. L. & Shinn, M. (2005). Learning from communities: Overcoming difficulties in dissemination of prevention & promotion efforts. American Journal of Community Psychology, 35, 169-183. Nation, M., et al (2003). What works in prevention: Principles of effective prevention programs. American Psychologist, 58(6-7), 449-456. Perkins, D. D. (2009). International community psychology: Development and challenges. American Journal of Community Psychology, 44 (1), 76-79. (see rest of this special issue) Reich, S. M., Riemer, M., Prilleltensky, I., & Montero, M. (Eds.)(2007). International community psychology: History and theories. NY: Springer. Roth, J.L. & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2003b). What exactly is a youth development program? Answers from research and practice. Applied Developmental Science, 7, 94-111. Weikart, D. P., & Schweinhart, L. J. (1997). High/Scope Perry Preschool Program. In G. W. Albee & T. P. Gullotta (Eds.), Primary prevention works. Issues in children's and families' lives, Vol. 6 (pp. 146-166). Sage Weissberg, R.P., & O'Brien, M.U. (2004). What works in school-based social and emotional learning programs for positive youth development. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 591, 86-97.