Objective 2.4: * Discuss two effects of the environment on physiological processes. *section B essay question

1. Objective 2.4:*Discuss two effects of the environment on physiological processes.*section B essay question

2. Things to consider…. • Our Brains are made in a way that allows it to adapt to the environment that it is placed in. Neurotransmission and hormones adapt to the specific environment it is placed in. This is has been shown in research dealing with adaptation to violent environments and neurotransmission desensitization. • Research should be used to support your explanation.

3. Things to consider…. • Early 20th century: believed that brain was only influenced by genes and thus unchangeable • Now we know that environmental enrichment /deprivation(an environmental factor)can modify the brain (a physiological process).

4. Two effects: • The effect of Deprivation and Stimulation on Neuroplasticity

5. Environment and Brain Plasticity • Neuroplasticity is a non-specific neuroscience term referring to the ability of the brain and nervous system in all species to change structurally and functionally as a result of input from the environment • Plasticity occurs on a variety of levels, ranging from cellular changes involved in learning, to large-scale changes involved in cortical remapping in response to injury and disease.

6. Environment and Brain Plasticity • Neuroplasticity is a non-specific neuroscience term referring to the ability of the brain and nervous system in all species to change structurally and functionally as a result of input from the environment • Plasticity occurs on a variety of levels, ranging from cellular changes involved in learning, to large-scale changes involved in cortical remapping in response to injury and disease.

7. 1. Environmental Enrichment • Neurons can compensate for injury or disease or to adjust their activities in response to new situations or changes in the environment. The brain is most plastic early in life (This is known as the critical period). • The brain can rearrange the connections between neurons (dendritic branching)

8. Environment and Brain Plasticity • The brain can generate new neurons throughout life (neurogenesis) • Learning can increase/decrease neurotransmissionbetween specific neurons (long term potentiation) • It is assumed that as your behavior changes (in most cases because of environmental change), so does the underlying neural circuitry.

9. Effects of environmental enrichment on brain plasticity. • Environmental enrichment concerns how the brain is affected by the stimulation of its information processing provided by its surroundings (including the opportunity to interact socially). • Brains in richer, more stimulating environments, have increased numbers of synapses, and the dendrite arbors upon which they reside are more complex. • This effect happens particularly during neurodevelopment, but also to a lesser degree in adulthood. What does this suggest?

10. Rosenzweig & Bennett (1972) • Aim: To investigate the effect of enrichment or deprivation on the development of neurons in the cerebral cortex in rats • Research method: Experiment • Procedure: Rats were placed in either a stimulating environment (toys) or a deprived environment (no toys). • The rats spent 30 or 60 days in their environment and then they were dissected.

11. Rosenzweig & Bennett (1972) • Findings: Post mortem studies of the rats´ brains showed that those that had been in a stimulating environment had an increased thickness in the cortex.

12. Kolb (1999) • Aim: To investigate if stimulating environments affect the growth of neurons in rats • Research method: Experiment • Procedure: Rats were placed in enriched environments beginning at weaning or as young adults. Control group were placed in standard cages

13. Kolb (1999) • Findings: Both age groups raised in enriched environments showed a large increase of the length of dendrites in cortical neurons.

14. Research on environmental enrichment cont. • According to the principle that states animal research can be used in place of human because of their biological similarities, we can infer that a lack of stimulation (deprivation—such as in old-style orphanages) delays and impairs physiological parts of the brain responsible for cognitive development. • Research also finds that higher levels of education (which is both cognitively stimulating in itself, and associates with people engaging in more challenging cognitive activities) results in greater resilience (cognitive reserve) to the effects of aging and dementia.

15. The Case of Genie

16. Research on environmental enrichment cont. • Such studies suggest that brains are physically sculpted by our environments. Aspects of the brain can be changed as we go through experiences. As a person develops a greater number of skills and abilities, the brain actually becomes more complex and heavier. • Research has also suggested that Children who are unable to have certain experiences, will have specific parts of their brain significantly less developed, less intricate, and thinner in comparison to those who have had those experiences.

17. Mirror neurons and the environment. • Another way in which the brain and environment interact is through the activity of the recently discovered mirror neurons. Mirror neurons are neurons that fire when an animal performs an action or when the animal observes somebody else perform the same action. • This means we subconsciously mimic the actions of others and thus share, to some extent, their experience. How can this be effected by your environment?

18. Mirror neurons and the environment. http://www.ted.com/talks/vs_ramachandran_the_neurons_that_shaped_civilization.html

19. 2. Mirror neurons and the environment. • The proposed mechanism is rather simple. Each time an individual sees an action done by another individual, neurons that represent that action are activated in the observer’s premotor cortex. • This automatically induced, motor representation of the observed action corresponds to that which is spontaneously generated during active action and whose outcome is known to the acting individual. • Thus, the mirror-neuron system transforms visual information into knowledge.

20. Mirror neurons and the environment. • These mirror neurons, as they are known, also allow us to know what another person is feeling, without having to think about it. • The discovery of mirror neurons is among the most significant neuroscientificdiscoveries in recent years. • This mean that when you see someone doing something, in your brain you do it too - for instance, when you watch a person running, the bit of your brain concerned with planning to move the legs is activated.

21. Mirror neurons and the environment. • When you see another person expressing an emotion, the areas of your brain associated with feeling that emotion are also activated, making emotions transmittable. • Emotion mirroring is thought to be the basis of empathy.Autistic people often lack empathy and have been found to show lessmirror-neuron activity. • Mirror neurons explain why emotion is whipped up in horror film audiences - seeing someone else looking frightened makes you feel scared yourself.

22. More Info: • http://www.robotcub.org/misc/papers/06_Rizzolatti_Craighero.pdf

23. Objective 2.5:*Examine one interaction between cognition and physiology in terms of behavior. Evaluate one research study/theory*section B essay question

24. Things to consider…. • There are numerous theories/studies that suggest that our cognition(to mean such functions or processes as perception, introspection, memory, creativity, imagination, conception, belief, reasoning, volition, and emotion) interacts with physiological functions (brain parts, neurotransmitters) to guide behavior. • This essay should be started by first explaining the interaction between physiology and cognition in all behavior. Examples should be provided to show knowledge and understanding of these interactions.

25. First things first…What is cognition? • In psychology, cognition is a group of mental processes that includes attention, memory, producing and understanding language, perception, and making decisions. • There is an interaction of physiological factors and cognitive factors in many of the behaviors that we experience. • One particular behavior is the experience of emotion.

26. The interaction of cognitive and physiological factors… • Psychologists have long debated the role physiological, and cognitive factors play in emotions. • Originally believed to be a physiological experience, research now suggests that emotions are an interaction of both physiological and cognitive factors. • Different theories debate the role and primacy of each. For this objective, we will evaluate two theories.

27. Examining one interaction of cognition and physiology: Emotion • Emotions are an individual’s subjective feelings and moods. • The term applies to both physiological and cognitive responses to specific stimulus situations.

28. Examining one interaction of cognition and physiology: Emotion One component of emotions is cognitive processes. • Although psychologists differ in the extent to which they emphasize the role of cognition in emotional arousal and expression, there is a general consensus that perception, learning, and memory are all very much involved in experiencing emotions. • Listening to music, or looking at a picture often elicits conditioned or learned emotions.

29. Identify the emotion that the following pictures elicit…

30. Picture 1

31. Excitement

32. Picture 2

33. Sadness

34. Picture 3

35. Anger

36. Picture 4

37. Surprised

38. Examining one interaction of cognition and physiology: Emotion The other component of emotions is physiological arousal. • When someone describes their anger by saying “the juices were flowing,” this account is close to the mark. • The “juices," in the form of epinephrine and other hormones associated with the arousal of anger, probably were flowing. • As a result of this increased endocrine activity, we might guess that for a few moments the heart rate increases dramatically, blood pressure probably increased significantly, and breathing may have become rapid and uneven. • In other words, there is a physiological response to our emotions.

39. Examining one interaction of cognition and physiology: Emotion • Schacter (1964) was the first theorist to bring together the two elements of physiological arousal and cognition. • It is sometimes known as the two-factor theory of emotion. For an emotion to be experienced, a physiological state of arousal is necessary AND situational factors will then determine how we perceive this arousal.

40. Examining one interaction of cognition and physiology • In other words, an event causes physiological arousal first. • You must then identify a reason for this arousal and then you are able to experience and label the emotion. • The strength of physiological arousal will determine the strength of emotion experienced, while the situation will determine the type of emotion. These two factors are independent of each other BUT both are necessary for the emotion to be experienced.

41. Examining one interaction of cognition and physiology • We appraise the emotion-causing event while also evaluating what is happening with our bodies. The key process in emotional arousal is how we interpret feedback from our bodies in light of our present situation.

42. Examining one interaction of cognition and physiology • So, imagine you are alone in a dark parking lot walking toward your car. A strange man suddenly emerges from a nearby row of trees and rapidly approaches. • The sequence that follows, according to the two-factor theory, would be much like this: 1. I see a strange man walking toward me. 2. My heart is racing and I am trembling. 3. My rapid heart rate and trembling are interpreted as fear because of the situation. 4. I am frightened!

43. Examining one interaction of cognition and physiology Why are cognitive labels important in identifying emotions? How can this same physiological response be perceived differently?

44. Physiological Similarities Physiological responses related to the emotions of fear, anger, love, and jealousy are very similar. Without a cognitive label, we would misinterpret those emotions. M. Grecco/ Stock Boston Excitement and fear involve a similar physiological arousal.

45. Examining one interaction of cognition and physiology Schachter and Singer’s Experiment A classic study by Schacter & Singer ( 1962) supports these ideas. Their study tested the theory that an emotion is made up of cognitive appraisal (labeling the emotion) and physiological arousal (adrenaline and the physical changes it produces).

46. Examining one interaction of cognition and physiology Schachter and Singer’s Experiment The aim of the experiment was to test the two-factor theory of emotion to see if participants exhibited both cognitive and biological reactions to an stimulus.

47. Examining one interaction of cognition and physiology Schachter and Singer’s Experiment • A group of 184 male participants were injected with epinephrine, a neurotransmitter (which also doubles as a hormone) that produces arousal including increased heartbeat, trembling and rapid breathing. • All of the participants were told that they were being injected with a new drug to test their eyesight (which was false). However, one group of participants were informed of the symptoms the injection might cause (control group), while other participants were not (experimental group).

48. Examining one interaction of cognition and physiology Schachter and Singer’s Experiment • Participants were then placed in a room with another participant who was actually a confederate in the experiment. • The confederate either acted in one of two ways: euphoric or angry. Participants who had not been informed about the effects of the injection were more likely to feel either happier or angrier than those who had been informed.

49. Evaluation of two factory theory While Schachter and Singer’s research spawned a great deal of further research, their theory has also been subject to criticism. Other researchers have only partially supported the findings of the original study, and have had times shown contradictory results. Other criticisms of the two-factor theory: • Sometimes emotions are experienced automatically before we have time to perceive them. • The sample was not representative (all male) and males may have different emotional reactions to females. This therefore makes it difficult to generalize the findings further.

50. Objective 2.6:*Discuss the use of brain imaging technologies in investigating the relationship between biological factors and behavior.*section B essay question