Creating an Academic Argument

1. By Sarah Matthey Dissertation Editor Creating an Academic Argument

2. Define the different types of papers Explore how to organize a paper Avoiding rhetorical devices and fallacies Questions The Master Plan

3. Types of Papers What is the Scholarly Voice?

4. Type of Communication • Exposition papers • Argumentative papers • Descriptive papers • Narrative papers

5. Types of Papers Exposition Papers • To inform or explain something. • Examples include PDP, DDP, reflection papers, informational essays, LA’s.

6. Exposition Papers • Not argumentative in nature • May include personal or professional examples • May include emotional language or pathos. • Foundation for argumentative papers

7. Argumentative Paper • Argumentative paper uses logic, evidence, and reasoning to help persuade your reader of something. • Relies on ethos as an argumentative tool. • Relies less on personal experience or feelings.

8. APA 3.07 • APA 3.07 states that arguments should be presented “in a professional, noncombative manner” (p.66). • You should speak as an objective social scientist.

9. Evidence Science equals evidence • Everything you say must be supported by evidence. • Evidence should be tested within the field. Use peer reviewed journals, books, and scholarly websites.

10. Organizing Your Paper

11. Organizing Your Paper • All papers should include introduction with thesis statement, a body, and a conclusion. • There are many ways to organize the body. We will focus on that in a minute…

12. Prewriting • Before you do anything, conduct some prewriting. • Freewriting • Notecards • Concept map • Outline

13. Quick Notes About Introduction and Conclusion

14. Introduction • Begin your introduction with an attention getting sentence or lead-in sentence: • A statistic related to your topic • A statement of a problem or popular misconception related to your topic • A factual statement or a summary of an interesting event related to your topic

15. Introduction • At the end of your introduction, include a thesis statement. • The thesis statement declares the main points of the paper and explains why the topic is significant. Why should the reader care? • The thesis statement should not be a question. After all, how can the reader know what your paper is about if you are asking the reader that very question? 

16. Skip to the End… Conclusions

17. Conclusions • Synthesize the thesis with results and information from the body of the paper (In other words, bring together whatand so what?) • Return to topics and ideas from the introduction • Look forward to the future. What needs to happen next? • Avoid bringing in new evidence, ideas, or questions in your conclusion.

18. Back to the Body and Constructing Academic Arguments

19. MEAL Plan • Main points of the paragraph. • Evidence to support main points. • Analyze the evidence. • Link ideas in this paragraph to the ideas in the next paragraph.

20. Compare and Contrast Model • You can construct your paper using the compare and contrast model to persuade your reader. • This model includes what you are trying to convince your reader of (arguments) and the opposition’s side to your claim (counter arguments) • All issues have two sides and good scientists do not ignore counter arguments.

21. Compare and Contrast Pattern A • Introduction and Thesis • Body paragraph 1: You present your first point and supporting evidence. • Body paragraph 2: You present your second point and supporting evidence. • Body paragraph 3: You refute opposition’s first point (counter argument). • Body paragraph 4: You refute opposition’s second point (counter argument). • Conclusion

22. Compare and Contrast Pattern B • Introduction to your paper • Body paragraph 1: You refute opposition’s first point (counter argument). • Body paragraph 2: You refute opposition’s second point (counter argument). • Body paragraph 3: You present your first argument. • Body paragraph 4: You present your second argument. • Conclusion

23. Compare and Contrast Pattern C • Introduction to your paper. • Body paragraph 1: Present first argument and evidence and refute one counter argument. • Body paragraph 2: Present second argument and evidence and refute another counter argument. • Conclusion

24. Toulmin Model • Steven Toulmin, philosopher and logic expert, concluded that every argument should have 6 parts: • Claim • Grounds • Warrant • Backing • Qualifiers • Rebuttals

25. Toulmin Model • The claim is the assertion you are trying to prove. Your claim will include your position on the argument and may include a proposal for change.

26. Toulmin Model • The grounds are the supporting evidence to your claim: statistics, research studies, facts, logic, and reasoning.

27. Toulmin Model • The warrant is the generalization(s) that explain why the evidence support your claim. • All arguments must have some accepted warrants in order for the reader to be persuaded.

28. Toulmin Model • Backing are the reasons that show your warrants are accepted. Backing indicates that the warrants are reliable for this particular argument.

29. Toulmin Model • Qualifiers are the words that show when, how, and why your claim is reliable. • These words include might, may, can, and could. • Example: Teaching students English in school may help them learn more efficiently in other subjects.

30. Toulmin Model • Rebuttals include the exceptions to the claims. • Acknowledging rebuttals and refuting them strengthens your argument. • Some argue that teaching English in schools may be culturally insensitive; however, American citizens must understand English to be economically and financially successful.

31. Avoiding Fallacies or Rhetorical Devices

32. Fallacies and Rhetorical Devices • A logical fallacy is an error in logic. It means to deceive. • No matter how you create your argument, you should avoid fallacies and rhetorical devices

33. Fallacies and Rhetorical Devices • Ad hominem- personally attacking the person instead of addressing the argument. • Smith was a horrible researcher. • Band-wagon appeal. Everyone is doing something, so the reader should as well. • All teachers are participating in this program, so this district should too.

34. Fallacies and Rhetorical Devices • Begging the question- passes off as true an assumption that needs to be proven. Teacher leadership will increase student achievement. • False analogy-when two things compared do not match up feature for feature. • HIV rates are increasing. There needs to be more police to prevent crime.

35. Fallacies and Rhetorical Devices • False dilemma- the simplification of complex into either/or choices. • If Smith’s findings are false, so are all the other researcher’s. • False use of authority- occurs when an expert in a particular field is used as an authority in another unrelated field. • I have been a nurse for 30 years. There needs to be more fire prevention in the community.

36. Fallacies and Rhetorical Devices • Post hoc- an argument that establishes a cause/effect relationship that has not been proven to be true. • Students who listen to heavy metal music will all commit suicide. • Red herring- something that is used to distract the reader from the true argument. • Crime rates are rising. Drug addiction rates are down in the community.

37. Fallacies and Rhetorical Devices • Slippery slope- presumes one evidence will lead to a chain of events. • If this new drunk-driving law is not passed, everyone who drives on the road will die. • Stacking the deck- when writers only give evidence to support their claim, and not include counter arguments. • Smoking relaxes someone, and that means it is good for your health.

38. Wrap Up • Before you write something, ask yourself the following: • Is this objective? • Am I speaking as a social scientist? • Could this be offensive to someone? • Could this limit my readership?

39. Fin writingsupport@waldenu.edu