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The RSA Cryptosystem

Explore RSA encryption, factorization of integers, key generation, exponentiation modulo, encryption, and signing with RSA. Understand how RSA is used for secure data transmission.

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The RSA Cryptosystem

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  1. The RSA Cryptosystem Factoring large integers

  2. Factorization • Given an integer N > 1, it has a unique factorization into primes: • N = p1r1  p2r2  ...  pkrk; • Elementary-school algorithm for factoring: • List primes and try each in order • Inefficient: If N is k bits long, primes  √N, or less than k/2 bits long should be tried. • There are 2k/2/ksuch primes. Exponential workload Florida State University Fall 2005

  3. RSA Integers • Let k = 1024, or 2048, for instance. • Generate two primes p, q, of bitlength k/2 • Put N = p•q • Under most conditions, it is hard to factorN • The primes p, q must not be of a “weak” form • All known algorithms to factor such numbers have super-polynomial running times. • Publish N; keep p, q secret. Florida State University Fall 2005

  4. Size of the RSA ring • Let ZN* be the set of integers a such that: • a is in [1, N-1]; • a relatively prime to N: • a and N have no common divisors; • Then ZN* contains (p-1)(q-1) elements. • For each integer L: • let (L) be the size of the subset of [1, L-1] made of numbers relatively prime to L • We have seen that if N = pq, a product of primes: • (N) = (p - 1)(q - 1) Florida State University Fall 2005

  5. Exponentiation modulo N • If a is relatively prime to (N),then: • Let b be such that ab + k (N) = 1. • Such bexists by the Euclidean algorithm for GCD • It follows that for every M in ZN* : • C = Ma mod N • D = Cb mod N • Then D = M mod N (!!!) Florida State University Fall 2005

  6. Inverting exponents • If p, q are known: • First compute (N) • Then use GCD algorithm to find, for each exponent a, its inverse. • If p and qare not known: • Given an exponent, one cannot find its inverse without first having to factor N. • Public Key: (N, e) • Private Key: (p, q, d), where d = e-1 Florida State University Fall 2005

  7. To encrypt using RSA • Retrieve the public key (N, e) • First, encode a block Bof bitlength smaller than k = | N |, as an element M of ZN* : • M = Encode(N, B) • Then compute C = Me mod N. • SendCto recipient, who then uses privated: • Recovers M = Cd mod N. • Decodes B = Decode(N, M). This is not an encryption everybody knows how to decode Florida State University Fall 2005

  8. To sign using RSA • Compute digest H = H(M) of message M. • EncodeH as an element K of ZN* • K = Encode(N, H) • Use private key (p, q, d): • S = Kd mod N. • To verify signature S on Message M • Re-compute: H = H(M) • K = Encode(N, H) • Retrieve public key (N, e) • Check: (K = Se mod N)? Florida State University Fall 2005

  9. RSA Encoding • Unlike DSA and discrete-log type signatures, the encoding of bytes as elements of is security-critical in RSA signatures and encryption. • The encoding is specified as part of the RSA standard. There are two main encoding standards used w/ RSA: • RSA-OAEP(+) • EMSA-PSS Florida State University Fall 2005

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