On The Tip of the Icebergs:

1. On The Tip of the Icebergs: An English Language Learner’s Journey from First Language to Second Language Reading Comprehension Florencia Montes, María Patricia Botero, Tracy Pechthalt

2. Research Question How does first language (L1 – Spanish) reading comprehension affect second language (L2 – English) reading comprehension?

3. The study focuses on James Cummins’s, Virginia Collier’s ,and Wayne Thomas’s theories that examine the transfer of first language skills to second language skills. James Cummins Virginia Collier and Wayne Thomas

4. Cummins examined the influence on L1 on L2 in an English Language Learner based on two theories: the Threshold Theory (Cummins, 1998) the Developmental Interdependence Theory, also known as the Common Underlying Proficiency Theory (Cummins, 1998).

5. The Threshold Theory • Cummins proposes that the degree to which bilingualism is developed in a child triggers either positive or negative cognitive consequences (Ahearn et al. 2002). • The theory is portrayed as a three floor house separated by two thresholds or levels.

6. The Threshold Theory • The first floor depicts children with below age-level bilingual competence resulting in negative cognitive effects in bilingualism (Ahearn et al. 2002)or semilingualism (Cummins, 1979). They lack the vocabulary, abstract thinking, and other cognitive aspects of the language. (Cummins, 1979).

7. The Threshold Theory • The second floor suggests that children with age-level proficiency in at least one of the two languages might experience both positive and negative cognitive effects. • Dominant bilingualism (Cummins, 1979).

8. The Threshold Theory • The third floor portrays children with age-level proficiency in both languages enjoying positive cognitive, linguistic, and academic advantages in bilingualism (Ahearn et al. 2002). • Additive bilingualism (Cummins, 1979)

9. The Developmental Interdependence Theory is also known as the Dual Iceberg Theory. • The first Language and second Language are pictured as two icebergs, dual icebergs, supported by the CUP (Ahearn et al. 2002). As the CUP expands in one of the languages it reflects positively in the child’s L2 (Shoebottom, 1996).

10. Wayne Thomas’s and Virginia Collier’s Prism Model is closely related to Cummins’s theory on the interdependence of the first and second Language (Collier & Thomas, 2007)

11. The Prism Model At the heart of the prism is the ELL who is influenced by: (Collier & Thomas, 2007).

12. Literature Review • The transference of literacy knowledge (strategies) from L1 to L2 • The influence of L1 and L2 proficiency level in L2 reading comprehension • L1as a teaching strategy and tool to improve L2 reading comprehension • Cognitive factors involved in L1 & L2 reading comprehension

13. Data Collection Triangulation Matrix Research Question: How does L1 (Spanish) reading comprehension affect L2 (English) reading comprehension?

14. Data Collection Tools Grades Questionnaires Reading comprehensionpassage assessments Videotaping Interviews

15. Methods of Data Analysis Large Matrix: used to individually compare the 29 students Spanish and English grades A crosscheck was done to see change in grades status from (↑↓↔) On this same matrix the RC passage assessment grades were also taken into consideration and compared to grades to look for patterns.

16. Methods of Data Analysis Small matrix: The results from the two questionnaires were compared This small matrix focused on the students whose patterns were not that clear.

17. Methods of Data Analysis Videotaped oral readings in L2 Observed what they would do when they encountered a word they didn’t know or couldn’t pronounce. The researcher was curious to see if they went back to their L1 phonology or L1 base to make observable transfers. Orally tested on their comprehension

18. Methods of Data Analysis and Triangulation Compare the two matrices Compare long questionnaire with two matrices Compare student video and interviews with matrices

19. Findings Comparing individual student’s Spanish grades to their English grades The majority of students have the same grade in English as in Spanish. This finding supports Cummins’ (1979), Collier’s and Thomas’ (2007) theories and related studies by Watkins-Goffman & Cummins (1997), and Rivera (1999), that a student’s L1 is strongly connected to a student’s L2. High Spanish, then high English Low Spanish, then low English The content in English is easier than the content in Spanish. The students’ advanced L1 helps them excel in L2, thus the explanation for higher L2 grades.

20. Findings Comparing reading comprehension assessment results with 1st and 2nd period grades in English and Spanish. The girls with high 1st semester grades in both L1 and L2 had a high score on the reading comprehension assessment. Students who showed a lower L1 and higher L2 through their grades tend to show the same on the reading comprehension assessment —they scored better on the English version than the Spanish version. Students who have the same grades in L1 and L2 seem to score exactly the same on both the English and Spanish versions of the assessment.

21. Findings Small Matrix- 4 main questions from short questionnaire and comments from long questionnaire. Students who excel in both L1 and L2 expressed a love for reading and had a positive attitude for reading in both languages Students who improved their L2 in second grading period expressed that they enjoyed reading in L2 for pleasure. Students who have a high L1 and a low L2 usually only read for pleasure in L1

22. Findings Video Recordings Poor pronunciation did not adversely affect comprehension The “A” student was able to answer the rc questions more correctly, precisely and quickly then the “B” or “C” students. Students were less likely to answer the questions that pertained to the last part of the reading.

23. Conclusions The academic structure of the school strongly supports the Threshold Theory. The students are receiving a firm foundation in their L1, while living and socializing in their L1 environment. The international language and culture experiences, whether sponsored by the school or family support the Prism Theory’s socio cultural aspect.

24. Action Plan Establish consistent professional interaction among all grade level teachers in all subjects. Schedule bi-weekly grade level team meeting starting with the next school year (Aug 2009-Jun 2010) since horizontal alignment in all grades is lacking. To get our cross curriculum dialogue started: Schedule two additional meetings end of present school year (Jun09)- build foundation for cross curricular planning; beginning of next year (Aug09) - fine tune decisions made in Jun09.

25. Action Plan Set up reading center stocked with L2 teen magazines Give names of consistently low scoring students to Spanish or English teacher so they can monitor them more closely and have them reading successfully soon. Emphasize phonic/phonemic awareness in primary school to improve pronunciation at this level.

26. Theoretical Framework These particular 6th grade students have been exposed to an array of fictional novels starting in 3rd grade. Our Study Cummins proposed that readers who interact with a large amount and variety of texts “have access to the low-frequency vocabulary and grammatical structures found in texts…” (Avalos,2003) LiteratureReview Proficient L1 and L2 readers had the necessary literacy level to be taught L2 strategies of “reading to learn rather than learning to read” (Avalos, 2003) They will continue to be exposed to American & British literature combined with biographies.

27. Theoretical Framework Transference is obvious by comparing grades, reading behaviors & assessments Our Study The CUP shows how information is transferred from L1 to L2. (Cummins) Literature Review There is an obvious transference process of literacy strategies from L1 to L2 in moderate to high L2 proficiency level students. (Rivera & Kong)

28. Theoretical Framework Colombian students with high literacy in L1 (Spanish) were able to transfer that high level of literacy to their L2 (English). Our Study The CUP (Cummins 1992) says that students draw their literacy knowledge or skills from L1 to comprehend L2. Literature Review Watkins-Goffman and Cummings (1997) found that with Dominican studentshigh literacy in L1 increased L2 comprehension.

29. “It is theory that decides what can be observed” (Albert Einstein, Retrieved March 01, 2009). What can be observed can be supported and demonstrated through research.