IADSR International Conference 2012

1. IADSR International Conference 2012 Post Conference Workshop Lahore, Pakistan 1 May 2012

2. Writing a Journal Article:Section by Section Barbara Gastel, MD, MPH AuthorAID at INASP (www.authoraid.info) and Texas A&M University

3. Overview • Using journals’ instructions to authors • Structuring a journal article • Writing effectively in English • Learning more: some resources • Along the way: • Open discussion • Small-group work

4. Preliminary Questions • Experience • Have you written an article reporting research? • Have you published such an article? • Materials—have you brought the following? • The instructions to authors from a journal in which you hope to publish a paper • An example of a paper published in this journal • A draft of a paper about your own research

5. Using a Journal’s Instructions to Authors • Read the instructions to authors before starting to prepare your paper. • Consult the instructions while preparing your paper. • Check the instructions again before submitting your paper.

6. What are some questions that a journal’s instructions may answer?

7. Some Questions the Instructions May Answer • What categories of article does the journal publish? • What is the maximum length of articles? • What is the maximum length of abstracts? • What sections should the article include? What are the guidelines for each? • What guidelines for writing style should be followed?

8. Some Questions (cont) • How many figures and tables are allowed? What are the requirements for them? • In what format should references appear? Is there a maximum number of references? • In what electronic format should the paper be prepared? • How should the paper be submitted?

9. Some Browsing • A resource: Instructions to Authors in the Health Sciences (http://mulford.meduohio.edu/instr/) • Examples of journals’ instructions to authors • Uniform requirements for manuscripts submitted to biomedical journals (http://www.icmje.org/)

10. Small-Group Exercise • Look at some instructions to authors that you or others brought or accessed. • What kinds of information do they contain? • What else do you notice about them? • Note and discuss questions you have about instructions to authors. • Be ready to present observations and questions to the full group.

11. Discussion of the Small-Group Exercise

12. Beyond the Instructions • Look at some recent issues of the journal. • In the journal, look at some papers that present research analogous to yours. • Using such articles as models can help you gear your paper to the journal.

13. Small-Group Exercise • Look at a journal article that you or someone else brought or accessed. • What are some things about this article that might be good to imitate if you write an article for the same journal?

14. Discussion of the Small-Group Exercise

15. Structuring a Journal Article

16. Preparing a journal article:largely a matter of organization

17. A Common Format for Journal Articles: IMRAD • Introduction: What was the question? • Methods: How did you try to answer it? • Results: What did you find? • And • Discussion: What does it mean?

18. A More Complete View • (Title) • (Authors) • (Abstract) • Introduction • Methods • Results • Discussion • (Acknowledgments) • (References)

19. Some Other Structures • IRDAM (with methods at end) • IMRAD RAD RAD . . . (with combined or alternating results and discussion) • Other

20. Questions • What is the usual structure of journal articles in your research field? • What is the structure of an article that you or a group member brought?

21. Title • The fewest possible words that adequately indicate the contents of the paper • Important in literature searching • Should not include extra words, such as “A Study of” or “Observations on” • Should be specific enough • Generally should not include abbreviations • (Running title: short version of title—appears at tops of pages)

22. Mini-Exercise • Look at the title of a journal article that you or a group member brought. • Do you think it’s a good title? Why or why not?

23. Authors • Those with important intellectual contributions to the work • Often listed from greatest contributions to least • In some fields, head of research group often is listed last • In some fields, listed alphabetically • Useful to list one’s name the same way on every paper

24. The Abstract • An important part of the paper • Relatively widely read • Used to decide whether to read the rest of the paper • Gives editors, reviewers, others a first impression • Briefly summarizes the paper • Should be organized like the paper (for example, in a miniature version of the IMRAD format) • Some journals have structured abstracts (with standardized headings).

25. Mini-Exercise • Look at the abstract of a journal article that you or a group member brought. • Is it structured (with headings in it) or unstructured? • How is it organized?

26. A Note on Abstracts • First to be read • Last to be written or revised

27. Orders of Reading and WritingSections of a Paper • People read the sections of journal papers in various orders. (What does that imply for how to write such papers?) • You can write the sections of a paper in any order. • A convenient order in which to write the main sections: methods, results, discussion, introduction

28. Methods

29. Purposes of the Methods Section • To allow others to replicate what you did • In order to test it • In order to do further research • To allow others to evaluate what you did • To determine whether the conclusions seem valid • To determine whether the findings seem applicable to other situations

30. Methods: Basic Informationto Include • In most cases, overview of study design • Identification of (if applicable) • Equipment, organisms, reagents, etc used (and sources thereof) • Populations • Approval of human or animal research by an appropriate committee • Statistical methods

31. Methods: Amount of Detail to Use • For well-known methods: name of method, citation of reference • For methods previously described but not well known: brief description of method, citation of reference • For methods that you yourself devise: relatively detailed description

32. Methods: The Words and More • Should be written in past tense • In some journals, may include subheads (which can help readers) • May include tables and figures—for example: • Flowcharts • Diagrams of apparatus • Tables of experimental conditions

33. Questions? Comments? Additions?

34. Results

35. The Results Section • The core of the paper • Often includes tables, figures, or both • Should summarize findings rather than providing data in great detail • Should present results but not comment on them • (Note: Some journals combine the Results and the Discussion.)

36. Verb Tense for the Results Section:Past Tense Examples: • A total of 417 patients showed _____. • _____ increased, but _____ decreased. • The average depth was _____. • In all, 93% of the dental students and 77% of the medical students indicated that ______. • The difference in _____ was not statistically significant.

37. Results Sections of Paperswith Tables or Figures • How much should the information in the text overlap that in the tables and figures? • Not extensive overlap • In general, text should present only the main points from the tables and figures • Perhaps also include a few of the most important data • Remember to mention each table or figure. Do so as soon as readers might want to see it.

38. Mentioning Tables and Figures:Some Writing Advice • In citing tables and figures, emphasize the finding, not the table or figure. • Not so good: Table 3 shows that researchers who attended the workshop published twice as many papers per year. • Better: Researchers who attended the workshop published twice as many papers per year (Table 3).

39. Tables: A Few Suggestions • Use tables only if text will not suffice. • Design tables to be understandable without the text. • If a paper includes a series of tables, use the same format for each. • Be sure to follow the instructions to authors.

40. Figures: A Few Suggestions • Use figures (graphs, diagrams, maps, photographs, etc) only if they will help convey your information. • Avoid including too much information in one figure. • Make sure that any lettering will be large enough once published. • Follow the journal’s instructions.

41. Small-Group Exercise:Methods and Results Sections • Note the most important points presented about the methods section and results section. • Note and discuss any questions you may have. • Look at published papers that group members brought. See how they compare with what was said about the methods and results sections. • If you brought a draft of a paper, consider the methods and results sections in light of the lecture material. Consider what you would keep the same and what changes you would make.

42. Discussion of Small-Group Exercise

43. The Introduction

44. Purposes of the Introduction • To provide background • In order to help readers understand the paper • In order to help readers appreciate the importance of the research • To identify the question or questions that the research addressed (or the hypothesis or hypotheses that the research tested)

45. Length of Introduction • Articles in some fields tend to have short introductions (a few paragraphs or less) • Articles in some other fields tend to have long introductions or to also include related sections (for example, literature review) • What about introductions in your field?

46. Gearing the Introductionto the Audience • Papers in relatively general journals: Introduction must provide basic background information. • Papers in specialized journals in your field: Introduction can assume that readers have more knowledge about the field.

47. Structure of the Introduction • Introduction typically should be funnel-shaped, moving from general to specific • A common structure: • Information on importance of topic • Highlights of relevant previous research • Identification of unanswered question(s) • Approach you used to seek the answer(s) • (In some fields) your main findings

48. Discussion

49. Discussion • One of the more difficult parts to write, because have more choice of what to say • Often should begin with a brief summary of the main findings • Should answer the question(s) stated in the introduction (or address the hypothesis or hypotheses) • Sometimes is followed by a conclusions section

50. The Discussion:Some Possible Content • Strengths of the study • For example, superior methods, extensive data • Limitations of the study • For example: small sample size, short follow-up, incomplete data, possible sources of bias, problems with experimental procedures • Better to mention limitations than for peer reviewers and readers to think that you’re unaware of them • If the limitations seem unlikely to affect the conclusions, can explain why