Nationalism Lecture 7: Unification and Separatist Nationalism

1. NationalismLecture 7: Unification and Separatist Nationalism Prof. Lars-Erik Cederman Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) Center for Comparative and International Studies (CIS) Seilergraben 49, Room G.2 lcederman@ethz.ch http://www.icr.ethz.ch/teaching/nationalism Assistant: Kimberly Sims, CIS, Room E 3, k-sims@northwestern.edu

2. Nationalism’s Three Time- Zones in Europe State-Framed Nationalism Unification Nationalism French Revolution Separatist Nationalism

3. Unification nationalism Common state? No Yes State- formation blocked Phase I: Nation- formation No Common nation? Central & Southern Europe: -Germany -Italy Yes Phase II: State- building

4. Historical pre-conditions of unification nationalism The era of consciously articulated nationalism triggered by the French Revolution: • Early state-formation blocked by outside powers and internal fragmentation • Nation-formation outside state framework • Late state-building through mix of conquest and voluntary merger

5. Differences from state-framed nationalism • cultural meditation • identities and boundaries deeply contested • sudden mobilization Because of tricky geography and external intervention, these areas were dominated by small city-states and pre-modern principalities under a layer of imperial and religious authority

6. “Risorgimento” nationalism Reaction to French Revolution and Napoleonic wars: • ideational revolution: democracy + popular sovereignty • direct Napoleonic rule • French military model • Vienna 1815: elimination of small geopolitical entities

7. Which came first? Nation or State? Common state? No Yes Radical constructivism No Common nation? Essentialist theory Yes Cultural nation?

8. The German Case • Failed state-formation • Charlemagne united most of Central and W. Europe in 9th c. but then the empire split • Faced with invasions, the Holy Roman Empire developed into a weak dynastic umbrella: Reichsnation restricted to nobility electing the Kaiser

9. Why did state-formation fail? • Reich too vast, terrain too rugged, cultures too diverse • Princes defended their sovereignty • Confessional split: Luther rallies against Rome, but no religious unity: Peace of Westphalia in 1648 cements religious patchwork: “cuius regio, eius religio”

10. Cultural convergence Cities blossomed, intellectual and commercial communications across regional boundaries: • Gutenberg invents the printing press (Leipzig 1450) • Bible translated • Commercial contracts require standardization • linguistic community beyond political orders; Bildungsbürgertum and Aufklärung Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803) precursor

11. Reaction to French Revolution • Conservative and anti-nationalist (Austria) • Liberal and nationalist (Germany): • Johann Gottlieb Fichte: “Address to the German nation” in 1807 • Nation-building through politicized organizations • Democratization against neo-absolutism of Princes • State-formation in opposition to Kleinstaaterei • Conservatives prevail at Congress of Vienna (1814-15): German Confederation, but considerable geopolitical consolidation

12. Springtime of the nations! Nationalist revolutions reverberate throughout Europe • July 1830: revolution in Paris triggers nationalist unrest in Germany and Italy • Vormärz: gradual nationalist mobilization drawing on anti-French and anti-Danish feelings • Revolution of 1848: unrest in France diffuses, shaking the Habsburgs 1848: agitation at the Michaelsplatz in Vienna

13. The Frankfurt Parliament After revolutionary turmoil tears apart German Confederation, the Frankfurt Parliament convenes in 1848. All parties agree that nation-state should be built, but: • boundaries controversial (“klein-” or “grossdeutsch”?) • popular sovereignty fails because Princes resist • Prussia fills vacuum => Failure: no unified state, no secure democracy, no cohesive nation 1848 convention of the Frankfurt Parliament

14. Late state-building • After Italian unification in 1860 liberal momentum builds up, but Bismarck, the Prussian Kanzler, “hijacks” the nationalist issue: successful wars against Denmark (1864), Austria (1866), France (1870-71) => German Empire 1871 • Instead of liberal nation-state, centralized, semi-democratic monarchy led by the Kanzler

15. Toward integral nationalism... • The German nation-state was born in war and Prussian militarism became dominant • While liberal mainstream was bought off, the masses remained excluded • Diversionary tactics: rallying against France, Britain, and “internal enemies” (socialists and Jews) • Uncertain Eastern boundary with Slavs

16. The Italian case Parallels with the German case: • geopolitical fragmentation and foreign domination • large, pre-modern entities (Catholic Church) • effect of French Revolution • unification by leading state (Piedmont) >>>integral nationalism results

17. Failed state-building • Renaissance system of city-states locked into balance of power • Difficult terrain and parochialism • French and Spanish domination • Napoleon’s conquest triggers geopolitical reorganization but restoration of Papal and Austrian power after 1815

18. Growing nationalism • In 1831, Giuseppe Mazzini founds Giovane Italia in Marseilles • In 1847, the newspaper Il Risorgimento appears with Cavour as supporter • In 1848, riots against Austrian rule in Lombardy but Austrians resist • In 1852, Cavour becomes Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia; Garibaldi forms the Association for the Unification of Italy Mazzini & Garibaldi Cavour

19. State-building • In 1860, the first “Italian Parliament” meets in Turin, and the One Thousand Red Shirts leave for Sicily • In 1861, Victor Emmanuel becomes king of Italy and the Kingdom gets a liberal constitution • Integral nationalism leads to fascism in the 1920s

20. Europe in 1885: The breakup of the empires begins Separatist Nationalism

21. Europe on the eve of WWI: Before the collapse of the great empires

22. Europe in 1925 after the collapse of the empires Collapse of Czarist Empire Collapse of Habsburg Empire Collapse of Ottoman Empire Colonialism

23. What came first? Nation or State? Common state? Eastern Europe: Ottoman, Habsburg, Russian Empires No Yes Phase I: State- formation No Common nation? Phase II: Secession & collapse Nation- building blocked Yes

24. Separatist nationalism • State-formation creates a multi-ethnic empire as in state-framed nationalism • But nation-building is blocked • Nationalities secede from the empire • Internal causes: sub-state revolts against “foreign” rule (mobilization & coordination) • External causes: weak military performance compared with more cohesive nation-states

25. Hroch’s main argument • When nationalism hits an area, nationalist mobilization corresponds to the level of modernization. • The later modernization happens, the less liberal and more violent the movement. • See also Breuilly: imperial policies important for timing and character of nationalism

26. Hroch’s phase model • Phase A. Scholarly inquiry • Phase B. Politicization • Phase C. Mass movement More complex explanation than Gellner’s: Social preconditions depend on more than industrialization (e.g. social mobility, communications, ideological “imports”, imperial policies)

27. Hroch’s typology Depending on the timing of modernization || we get: • Type 1. Integrated nationalism: |B|--C--> • Czechs, Hungarians, Norwegians • Type 2. Delayed nationalism: B--||--C--> • Croats, Slovenians, Lithuanians, Latvians • Type 3. Insurrectional nationalism: B-C--||--> • Serbs, Greeks, Bulgarians • Type 4. Disintegrated nationalism: --||--BC--> • Basque, Catalonians, Flemish, Welch

28. The Habsburgs • Multi-ethnic empire headed by Vienna that dominated fragmentary but partly autonomous ethnic groups and territories through conquest and dynastic politics • Led by Germans, but Hungarians enjoyed special status (especially toward the end) • Feudal + absolutist tendencies • Attempted but failed modernization

29. The Ottomans • Sprawling Turkish dynasty that never tried to build national-state (“Sick Man of Europe”) • Large degree of cultural autonomy and self-rule; masses un-mobilized (cf. Gellner’s agrarian phase) • Millet system: tolerant religious system for Muslims, Orthodox Christians, Armenians

30. A chain reaction of nationalism French Revolution, Napoleon Vienna Imperial policies Constantinople Hungary Czechs Slovaks Greeks Serbs Croats Rumanians

31. The Magyar case • Pragmatic Sanction of 1723 • A => B. Diffusion of ideas esp. from French Revolution + German nationalism (Herder): Szechenyi and Kossuth. April laws. • B => C. Vienna’s oppression. Revolt crushed by Vienna & Russia in 1849; War with Prussia creates Ausgleich (compromise) of 1867 which initiates the Dual Monarchy

32. The Croat case • Croatia part of “military frontier” defending against Ottoman Empire (boundary effect!) • A => B. The Sabor resists Magyar demands. Illyrian linguistic consolidation attempted (Gaj and Strossmayer). • B => C. Magyar repression esp. after Compromise of 1867. Yugoslavism on the rise.

33. The Serb case • Serbia conquered by Ottomans in 1459. Early insurrections in 1812 not nationalist. Serbia independent in 1878. • Economically backward and tolerant Ottoman rule • Nationalist mobilization “imported” from Habsburgs via Voivodina overtakes modernization