Holes in the Fabric of an Argument

1. Holes in the Fabric of an Argument

2. Actually, Two Categories • Logical fallacies: conclusions based upon faulty reasoning; weaknesses in an argument • False emotional appeals: appealing unfairly to readers’ fears, prejudices, stereotypes, and other emotions • The distinction isn’t crucial; all are argumentative errors to be avoided.

3. FALSE APPEALS • Ad populum arguments (“to the people”) • Appeals to the false authority of a person or group of people • Snob appeal: Beyonce says X, and Beyonce is an elite; therefore X is right. • The basis for a large proportion of celebrity product endorsements (although some of those are legitimate, e.g. pain cream, etc.) • Bandwagon appeal: X is popular; therefore X is right. • Every civilized nation except the US has universal health care; we should, too.

4. FALSE APPEALS • Ad hominemarguments (“against the man”) • Attacking a person, not his or her argument • What does Bill Clinton/Newt Gingrich know about education? He’s a philanderer! • Ad misericordium arguments • Falsely appealing to sympathy • Rhonda says X, and Rhonda suffered Irrelevant Sad Thing Y; therefore, X is right. • Mrs. Sikora had pneumonia as a child, so disagreeing with her on fiscal policy is mean-spirited and wrong.

5. FALLACIES • Not factual errors; errors in thinking • MAJOR: All dogs go to heaven. • MINOR: Charlie is in heaven. • CONCLUSION: Charlie is a dog. • Lots of non-dogs go to heaven; premise didn’t say “only.” • MAJOR: All dogs are furry. • MINOR: Robin Williams is furry. • CONCLUSION: Robin Williams is a dog. • Some non-dogs are furry. • MAJOR: If Walt Disney directed Snow White, it is a Disney movie. • MINOR: Snow White is a Disney movie. • CONCLUSION: Walt Disney directed Snow White. • The major premise is turned backward by the conclusion.

6. FALLACIES • Hasty/broad generalization • HASTY: Assuming a general rule based on limited or insufficient evidence • Osama Bin Laden has terrorist ties; therefore, all Muslims have terrorist ties. • Valid premise, faulty conclusion • BROAD: a sweeping claim without evidence, which can be easily disproved • All men are pigs; therefore, Delbert is a pig. • Faulty premise, faulty conclusion

7. FALLACIES • False choice • A false dichotomy used to describe a more complex multitude of options • Anyone who opposes this war either is a coward or hates everything the US stands for. • Circular reasoning (“begging the question”) • “Proving” your premise and pretending you made a point: “X is true because X is true.” • There is a God because the Bible says there is, and the Bible is the Word of God.

8. FALLACIES • Post hoc ergo propter hoc argument • “after this, therefore because of this” • Falsely concludes causality • Every time you miss your bedtime, someone dies somewhere. • Non sequitur (“it does not follow”) • Conclusions based on irrelevant premises • CHEEZ-ITs are tasty; therefore, they are good for you.

9. FALLACIES • Tu quoque(“You, also” or “You’re another”) • Avoiding an accusation by turning it back on the accuser. • The U.S. has no right to criticize Osama bin Laden for targeting women and children on 9/11. The U.S. did the same thing when it dropped the atomic bombs on Japan. • Just because your accuser is a hypocrite doesn’t mean he’s wrong. This is a cowardly dodge that only seeks to discredit the opponent, rather than disprove the claim.

10. FALLACIES • Weak analogy • Analogy whose analogues have more important differences than similarities • You wouldn’t bet on a horse that keeps losing, so stop watching the Cubs. • A losing horse is the same physical creature from race to race, but team rosters change. • Also includes “incendiaryallusions” • The no-hoodies rule is a fascist policy. • We know exactly what fascism is, and that rule doesn’t fit the definition, but the allusion conjures up lots of useful fear and anger.

11. FALLACIES • “Straw man” • Referencing a simplified, false, or exaggerated version of an opponent’s position in order to discredit it • Advocates of Obamacare want to send Grandma before a death panel to decide if she’s worth preserving! • Opponents of Obamacare want to deprive the poor and the sick of adequate medical care!

12. MORE FALLACIES • Appeal to tradition • Support my idea; it’s always been this way, and therefore it’s best! • Appeal to novelty • Support my idea; it’s new and innovative, and therefore better than anything old! • Appeal to ridicule • Dismissing an argument or person using hollow insults rather than reasoning • Please don’t tell me you’re one of those cavemen who argues that God exists! Aren’t we past that?

13. MORE FALLACIES • Guilt by association • Ringo says X, and Ringo has some link to Discredited Person Y; therefore, X is wrong. • Political ads: opponents hugging unpopular pols • Apophasis (“uh-PAHF-uh-sis”) • Mentioning something by claiming not to mention it • I won’t even address my opponent’s suspicious overseas activities in the 1980s… • Remember: any claim that attempts to short-circuit debate by ignoring, obfuscating, or exaggerating facts is probably fallacious!