African Nations' Independence Struggles

3. African Nations Gain Independence Main Idea After World War II, almost all countries in Africa gained independence from ruling European powers. • Reading Focus • What ideas and actions led to independence for British and French colonies? • Why did Portuguese and Belgian colonies have difficulty achieving independence? • What effect did apartheid have on the lives of black South Africans?

4. Ghana Two Movements National Elections • British colony of the Gold Coast, West Africa, first to achieve independence • African leaders established convention to demand greater participation in government • Goal: to cooperate with British, gain influence peacefully • Less cooperative movement also brewing • 1947, Kwame Nkrumah became leader of Convention People’s Party (CCP) • Nkrumah led strikes, demonstrations • British jailed him • Still transformed CCP into major political party • 1951, British pressured into allowing national elections British and French Colonies After 1945 European colonial powers began a process of decolonization—the withdrawal of colonial powers from their colonies and areas of influence. Great Britain and France led the way.

5. New Nation CCP swept Gold Coast national elections • Nkrumah continued to press for independence • 1957, Britain granted Gold Coast full independence • Nkrumah became first prime minister of new nation, Ghana

6. Conflict Mau Mau • Ownership of land, possibility of independence led to conflict between white Kenyan farmers, native Kikuyu people • Farmers feared independence would cause them to lose large tracts of valuable cash crops in Kenyan highlands • Kikuyu wanted these ancestral homelands back • Leader of Kenya’s nationalist movement, Jomo Kenyatta argued for Kikuyu’s right to land, its importance • Many Kikuyu farmers formed violent movement, Mau Mau • Group terrorized highlands, murdered anyone opposing them, including Africans who cooperated with white settlers Kenya In the 1950s the Kenyan path to independence did not go as smoothly as it did in Ghana.

7. British Regain Control British eventually regained control of colony • British murdered, tortured members of Mau Mau movement • Late 1950s, British convinced to accept decolonization • 1963, Kenya became independent nation • Jomo Kenyatta became first prime minister

9. French Africa • Different Path • French African colonies followed different path toward independence • French goal had been to incorporate colonies into France itself • Prime Minister Charles de Gaulle tried to pursue goal after World War II • Benefits in Relationship • African leaders believed they should have greater opportunities for self-rule • However, rejected final break with France because they believed Africans could attain economic, cultural benefits from continued relationship • French Community • 1958, de Gaulle called for referendum on continued union • Most colonies voted to join new organization, known as French Community • France granted most colonies of Community independence a few years later

10. Find the Main Idea How did Britain grant independence to its African colonies? Answer(s): Britain granted independence to its colonies after they began nationalist movements.

11. Portuguese and Belgian Colonies Belgian Congo Transition Difficult • After World War II, Belgian government agreed to prepare people of Belgian Congo for self-government • 1950s, African nationalists in Congo demanded immediate self-government • 1960, Belgians announced complete withdrawal; soon violence toward Belgian settlers, civil war erupted • Transition to independence for Belgian, Portuguese colonies more difficult than for British, French • Belgians, Portuguese held on to colonies longer than any other European nations • Violence forced decolonization

12. Leaders Emerge in Portuguese Colonies • Portugal continued to hold on to colonies • Meanwhile, African leaders emerged in colonies of Angola, Portuguese Guinea, Mozambique • Leaders organized armies to fight for independence • Bloody Warfare in Portuguese Colonies • Long years of bloody warfare marked last decades of Portuguese rule • War, military coup in Portugal drained Portuguese economy; made it impossible to continue support of colonies • 1974, Portugal withdrew completely from Africa

13. Summarize How did Africans in the Portuguese colonies achieve independence? Answer(s): African leaders organized armies to fight for independence; years of bloody warfare ended Portuguese rule.

14. Apartheid Racial Separation • 1948, racial discrimination heightened when Afrikaner-dominated National Party began to run South African government • Instituted policy of apartheid, “apartness” in Afrikaner language • Apartheid policy divided into four racial groups: White, Black, Colored (mixed ancestry), Asian • Attempted to create greater separation between whites, nonwhites, impose harsh controls South Africa In the early 1900s South Africa was run by white Afrikaners—descendants of the original Dutch settlers. Even though South Africa had received independence from Great Britain in 1910, nonwhites in South Africa were not free under the Afrikaner government. Apartheid laws banned interracial marriages, and placed further restrictions on African ownership of land and businesses.

15. Citizenship Denied Laws Harsh on Blacks • Under apartheid, only white South Africans could vote, hold political office • Blacks made up nearly 75 percent of population, were denied South African citizenship • Restricted to certain occupations, very little pay • Apartheid laws especially harsh on blacks in South Africa • Required to carry passes, identity books • Also faced imprisonment if police found them in an area for more than 72 hours without pass Apartheid Laws

16. Homelands • Townships • Apartheid placed limits on where blacks could live • Required to live in impoverished areas of cities called townships • Further Segregation • Restricted businesses allowed in townships, kept people poor • 1950s, created rural “homelands” for tribes, groups • Citizenship • Did not include good farmland, resources • Used homelands as excuse for depriving blacks of citizenship • Aliens • Men forced to migrate without families to work in mines, factories, farms • Homeland policy made millions resident aliens in own country

20. Find the Main Idea What was apartheid, and how did it function? Answer(s): policy of separating whites and nonwhites and placing restrictions upon nonwhites; enforced by police, laws

21. Post-Colonial Africa Main Idea Newly independent African nations struggled with poverty, conflict and ineffective governments. In recent years, some countries sought better government by holding democratic elections. • Reading Focus • What political challenges did Africans face after independence? • What economic and environmental challenges did Africans face after independence? • How did Africans revive their culture after independence?

22. Protesting Apartheid Change of Philosophy • Early 1900s, African National Congress formed in South Africa • ANC petitioned government, held peaceful protests against apartheid • 1940s, younger, radical members joined, including Nelson Mandela • 1952, Mandela organized campaign urging blacks in South Africa to break apartheid laws • 1960, changed from peaceful philosophy after police killed demonstrators in Sharpeville Political Challenges • 1950s–1960s, many former European colonies ruled by dictators • Some nations fell into civil war • 1990s brought renewed hope with the return of democracy; end of the apartheid system in South Africa The Sharpeville Massacre was a turning point in the anti-apartheid movement.

23. Protesting Apartheid • Meeting Violence with Violence • Mandela, other ANC leaders decided to meet violence with violence • Government banned ANC, jailed Mandela • 1976, major student protest movement in township of Soweto • Soweto Uprising • Soweto Uprising set off by decree for black schools to teach Afrikaans—language of white South Africans • Police killed protesting student; peaceful march turned into revolt • Trade Sanctions • Police crushed uprising, but over 600 killed, 4,000 wounded • ANC fought to end apartheid; violence erupted in many black townships • International community imposed trade sanctions on South Africa

24. Democracy in South Africa • 1990, President F.W. de Klerk legalized ANC, began negotiations to enact new constitution, end apartheid • Released Mandela from prison • Lifted long-standing ban on African National Congress • De Klerk also abolished homelands, held South Africa’s first democratic elections • ANC swept elections • Mandela became first black president of a democratic South Africa

25. Bribery and Corruption One–Party System • Some corrupt officials required bribes for government contracts, licenses • Also ran government enterprises for personal profit • New generation of dictators robbed countries of wealth • Mobutu Sese Seko, dictator of Congo, amassed personal fortune of about $5 billion, while his people fell into poverty • End of 1960s, nearly all newly independent African nations adopted one-party system • Single political party controls government • Elections rarely competitive • Opposition parties outlawed in many countries • Dictators ruled many nations, maintained power through patronage, giving loyal followers well-paid positions in government Military Dictatorships

26. Ethnic Conflicts Civil Wars • After independence, rival ethnic groups competed for control, some by destructive civil wars • 1967, Igbo-speaking group of eastern Nigeria proclaimed independent state of Biafra • Bloody civil war erupted; 2 million died from fighting, another 2 million from starvation • 1992, civil war, drought led to suffering in Somalia • Hundreds of thousands of Somalis died when warring militias stole food sent from international relief agencies • 1990s, tensions between Hutu, Tutsi erupted in violence • 1994, 1 million Tutsi, moderate Hutus massacred in Hutu-led government genocide Ethnic Conflicts and Civil War When the European powers divided Africa into colonies, preexisting political units were not maintained.

27. Elections Results • Many Africans saw weakness as opportunity to create democratic governments, demanded elections • By 2005, more than 30 African countries had abandoned one-party systems, held elections • Election results mixed • Some former dictators resorted to fraud, intimidation to win elections • Others elected because people preferred them to alternatives Democracy for Some • Despite conflicts, war throughout late 1900s, many African countries still dictatorships • Cold War: U.S., Soviets gave large amounts of money to dictators friendly to their side • Cold War ended, money dried up; weakened some dictators’ governments

29. Draw Conclusions Why did most African states adopt a one-party system? Answer(s): U.S. and Soviet Union each provided large amounts of money to dictators friendly to their side.

30. Economic and Environmental Challenges Struggling Economies Farming, Mining Development Loans • After independence most African nations’ economies fragile • Depended on only one, two exports for support • African nations not industrialized, depended on farming, mining raw materials • Example: Ghana depended on cocoa; Nigeria, oil • For loans, turned to international organizations, like World Bank; bad planning, corrupt leaders left nations with huge debts, no infrastructure After achieving independence, many African nations faced economic challenges that came with their new status. In addition, Africans had to combat the spread of disease and environmental problems.

31. Disease • African nations also challenged by management of deadly diseases • Malaria continues to be one of most common causes of death today • 1980s, new disease, acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) spread rapidly throughout Africa • AIDS • HIV virus that causes AIDS weakens body’s immune system, results in death • Social costs in sub-Saharan Africa staggering; millions of orphaned children because parents died from AIDS • Only small percentage of infected Africans receiving AIDS treatment

32. Desertlike Conditions Environmental Challenges • Result: soil in these areas dries out, natural grasses cannot grow • Sahara, Sahel deserts expanding due to desertification, spread of desertlike conditions • Desertification contributes to cycles of drought, famine that plague many African countries today • Scarcity of fertile farmland, pastures for livestock challenge for many Africans today • Farmers must plant crops in poor soil • Herders have to graze animals in extremely dry regions Desertification

33. Identify Cause and Effect What causes desertification in Africa? Answer(s): planting crops in poor soil and grazing animals in dry areas, causing soil to dry out even more

34. Language and Literature Change of Philosophy • During colonial rule Africans preserved culture, used as means of expressing dissatisfaction with colonial rule • Many East Africans continued to study Swahili language • Early 1960s, after independence, Swahili became national language in Kenya, Tanzania • Swahili writers maintained strong tradition of poetry, plays, novels Revival of African Culture • In spite of the challenges African countries have faced since independence, Africans have experienced a cultural revival. • A new generation of African writers, artists, and musicians has emerged to establish a powerful African identity. Meanwhile a new type of African literature developed in the French-speaking colonies of West Africa.

35. Censorship, Harassment Changes in Literature • Many writers faced censorship, harassment by African governments they ridiculed • Writers like Wole Soyinka spent time in prison for opposing Nigerian government • Other African writers fled Africa to escape possible imprisonment • 1930s, group of African, Caribbean students living in Paris founded negritude movement • Writings rejected European culture, focused on African culture, identity • After independence, African writers shifted from criticism of European colonialism to criticism of African leaders Revival of African Culture

36. Tradition Blending Styles • Musicians traditionally played to honor history, mark special occasions • Traditional dances performed to celebrate specific events, special ceremonies • 1960s, began to blend traditional African with Western music styles • Used common Western instruments in addition to African • 1980s, Afro-Pop music became popular; many African musicians internationally known today Art, Music, and Dance • Traditional arts like sculpture, music, dance also became new means of expressing African identity • Artists began to produce traditional pieces like masks, musical instruments, sculptures carved from wood, cast in bronze • Artists incorporated new ideas, materials into work, revival of African art with new vitality, creativity—highly valued on world market today

37. Find the Main Idea What subject did many African writers focus on after independence? Answer(s): criticism of African leaders

38. Nationalism in North Africa and the Middle East Main Idea The rise of nationalism in North Africa and the Middle East led to independence for some countries and to conflicts with the West. • Reading Focus • How did independence come to French North Africa? • What events led to the creation of Israel? • How did nationalism cause changes in Egypt and Iran?

39. Morocco and Tunisia Independence • Nationalist campaigns for independence began to grow in early, mid-1900s in both countries • Attempts by France to crack down on movements led to increasing unrest, demonstrations, guerrilla wars • Meanwhile Algeria also struggling for independence • Algeria home to large French settler population, was more important to the French • French government concluded it could not fight guerrilla wars in Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia at same time • Negotiated with nationalist leaders in Morocco, Tunisia • 1956, both countries granted independence French North Africa After World War II, France faced growing nationalist movements in its North African protectorates of Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria.

40. Algeria • Algeria • 1830, France first took control of some areas in Algeria • 1950s, more than 1 million European settlers in area, owned best land, dominated economy, had grip on political power • National Liberation Front • 1954, group of Algerian nationalists formed National Liberation Front (FLN) • FLN began campaign of armed attacks against French targets • French responded with mass arrests, raids on Muslim towns • Attacks on Settlers, Reprisals • Next year FLN directly targeted French settlers; attacks killed more than 100 people in one city • French forces, groups of settlers responded by attacking Muslims; between 1,200 and 12,000 Muslims killed in reprisal attacks

41. Change in Government Battle of Algiers • French settlers in Algiers increasingly angry over perceived lack of support from French government • May 1958, French troops, mob of settlers seized control in Algiers, demanded change of government in Paris • Demands met; Charles de Gaulle appointed prime minister in June 1958 • De Gaulle seen as strong supporter of settlers of Algeria • Attacks set pattern for deadly war in Algeria—FLN targeted French civilians, French attacked Muslim population • FLN launched campaign of bombings, assassinations at civilians, military in Algiers • French responded with harsh counterterrorism campaign, torturing suspected FLN members • Summer 1957, FLN largely defeated, but war not over French Responses

42. De Gaulle De Gaulle hoped to satisfy both French settlers, Algerian nationalists • Wanted to give Algeria limited degree of self-government • Faced violent reaction from French settlers, who did not want France to give up any control • Violent reaction also from nationalists, wanted full independence • De Gaulle decided French rule could not be maintained in Algeria • February 1961, opened peace talks with FLN • 1962, signed agreement granting Algeria independence

43. Contrast How was the struggle for independence in Algeria different from the struggle in Morocco and Tunisia? Answer(s): The French government negotiated with nationalist leaders in Morocco and Tunisia and allowed them independence, but fought the FLN to keep control of Algeria.